In English language, just like in other languages, words are classified into different categories called word classes or parts of speech

This classification is based on the use or on the function(s) they perform in sentences.

Words belonging to the same word class perform the same range of functions.

For example, words which name people, places, and things are called nouns while those which are used to describe actions and states are called verbs.

NB/

Some words belong to more than one word class.

For example the word ‘increase’ can be a noun or a verb depending on usage. E.g.

a) My employer has increased my salary. (Verb)

b) There has been an increase in my salary. (Noun)

In this unit, we will see how words are classified in English language. The focus will be on the nine word classes namely;

1) Nouns

2) Verbs

3) Adverbs

4) Adjective

5) Pronouns

6) Prepositions

7) Conjunctions

8) Articles

9) Interjections

Assignment 1

ü Research word which belong to more than one word class and give sentences for each case.

ü Write a sentence showing how each of the following words is used as indicated in the brackets

· All(adjectives/adverb/pronoun)

· After(adverb/preposition/adjective/conjunction)

· Any(noun/ adjective /pronoun)

· Before (adverb/preposition/conjunction)

· Both (adjective /pronoun/conjunction)

· But (adverb/preposition/conjunction)

· Down (adverb/preposition /adjective)

1. NOUNS

What is a noun?

Ø A noun is a word used to name a person, a place, a thing or even a state of being, For example;

ü Kikwete is a good president. (names a person)

ü Mwanza is a large city. ( names a place)

ü The flower is red. (names a thing)

ü His courage won him honour. (names a state of being)

NOTE

Person-sister,mayor,coach,child
Place-park,zoo,school,city
Things –book,pen,car
State of being –honesty,truth,democracy,pride,

TYPES OF NOUNS

There are three major types of nouns. They include;

a) Proper nouns

b) Common nouns

c) Collective nouns

ü PROPER NOUNS

A proper noun names or identifies a particular person, place or thing.

A proper noun is also known as a proper name.

· Examples of proper names of persons include; Mandela, Kikwete, Nyerere etc.

· Examples of proper names of places include; Mwanza, Tanzania, Musoma, Tarime etc.

NOTE

1. Sometimes specific names of animals, ships are included under proper nouns e.g. MV Victoria, Titanic.

2. Some calendar items, for example, date and months are also included under proper nouns e.g. May, June etc.

3. Historical documents, religions and holy texts are also examples of proper nouns e.g. Bible, Quran, Roman Catholic etc.

NB/ Proper nouns are always written with capital letters at the beginning of each word.

ü COMMON NOUNS

Ø A common noun names or identifies any person, place or thing.

Ø A common noun is a name that applies to objects or persons of the same class or kind, e.g. students, boys, town, country, building.

Ø Common nouns are divided into two major types;

a) Concrete Nouns

b) Abstract Nouns

a) Concrete Nouns

Ø These are nouns that name physical objects that occupy space and have weight.ie physical things that can be touched, seen, heard e.g. table, rock etc.

Ø Concrete nouns are further divided into;

1. Countable nouns

2. Uncountable nouns

Ø Countable nouns are the names of objects, and people that we can count e.g. books, pens, apples etc. Countable nouns have plural forms.

Ø Uncountable nouns are the names of the things that we can’t count e.g. milk, oil, gold, sugar etc.

Ø They are mainly names of substances and don’t have plural forms e.g. one can’t say oils or sugars.

b) Abstract Nouns

Ø Abstract nouns are usually names of quality, state or action.

Ø Examples of abstract nouns of quality include goodness, kindness, darkness, honesty, wisdom etc.

Ø Abstract nouns of action include nouns such as; laughter, theft, movement, hatred.

Ø Abstract nouns of state include nouns such as; childhood, boyhood, youth, sleep, sickness, death.

Abstract nouns may be formed from;

a) Adjective e.g.

Adjective Noun

Kind+ -ness……. .kindness

Good+-ness……. .goodness

Dark+-ness………darkness

b) Verbs e.g.

Verb Noun

Obey ………… obedience

Grow ………….growth.

c) Other common nouns e.g.

Noun Noun

Child…………….. Childhood

Slave…………….. Slavery

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Ø A collective noun is the name of a collection (or a group) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one unit.

Ø For example, band, class, family, jury, team, army etc.

Ø A collective noun is considered singular when it refers to a group as an entire unit and plural when it refers to the individual members within a group.

Ø They mostly take indefinite article an/a. Examples of collective nouns include;

A fleet – a collection of ships or vessels

An army- a collection of solders

A crowd – a collection of people

SUMMARY

COLLECTIVE

PROPER

COMMON

CONCRETE

ABSTRACT

NOUNS

Countable & Uncountable noun

A crowd of people

A fleet of ships

A herd of cattle

A flock of sheep

Mango

Table

Woman

House

Book

Wood

Mwanza

Uganda

Nyerere

Kikwete

May

Titanic

Honesty

Love

Corruption

Music

Air

Exercise

1. Identify nouns in the following sentences and state whether they are common (concrete or abstract), proper, or collective.

a) Mathematics is a useful science

b) Solomon was famous for his wisdom.

c) Freedom is our birth-right.

d) The Nile river overflows every September.

e) The girl wrote a letter to mary.

f) The Tanzanian army was won the battle yesterday.

g) A committee of five was appointed.

h) We love honey.

i) Always speak the truth.

2. Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives;

· Cruel

· Strong

· Deep

· Poor

· Ignorant

3.) Form abstract nouns from the following verbs;

Steal Starve See

Beware Die Free

4.) Form abstract nouns from the following common nouns;

King Friend Bond

Man Hero Pirate

INFLECTION OF NOUNS

Inflection refers to the changes in spelling that a word undergoes to show that it has changes in its grammatical aspects such as tense, mood, aspect, gender etc

Nouns inflect for

· Gender

· Number

· Case

1. GENDER

Gender of nouns is a classification of nouns according to sex of any of the object they represent. English language distinguishes four genders namely;

i. Masculine gender

ii. Feminine gender

iii. Neuter gender

iv. Common gender

Ø Masculine Gender

A noun which denotes a male human being or animal is known as masculine gender e.g. boy, husband, father, cock, stallion etc.

Ø Feminine Gender

A noun which denotes a female human being or an animal is known as feminine gender e.g. girl, wife, mother, hen, mare etc.

Ø Neuter Gender

This indicates names of objects without sex, that is, they are neither male nor female. For example fire, air, tree, book, etc.

Ø Common Gender

This denotes either male or a female gender. It names human beings or animals that may belong to either sex. For example parent, cousin, fish, bird, baby, servant, person, enemy etc.

SOME FACTS ABOUT GENDER

1) Ships and countries are treated as belonging to the feminine gender.

2) Objects noted for strength and violence are treated as belonging to the masculine gender e.g. sun, summer, time, death etc.

3) Objects noted for beauty, grace, gentleness, and admiration are treated as belonging to the feminine gender e.g. moon, spring, autumn, peace, hope etc.

Ø FEMININE NOUN FORMATION

There are three ways of forming the feminine gender from the masculine gender.. They include:

i) By using an entirely different word, for example;

Boy………………..Girl

Brother……………Sister

Buck………………Doe

Cock………………Hen

Gander……………Goose

ii) By adding an affix (a suffix) to the masculine noun e.g. –ess,-ine,-a

Lion…………………Lioness

Prince……………….Princess

Hero………………...Heroine

Sultan………………Sultana

NOTE

The suffix –ess is the commonest affix used to form the feminine gender from the masculine gender.

iii) By placing a word before or after a masculine noun

Masculine gender Feminine gender

Male……………………..Female

Grandfather……………..Grandmother

Landlord…………………Landlady

Salesman…………………Saleswoman

2 NUMBER

Number in the noun is the form that shows whether reference is made to one object or more than one object. A noun that denotes one person or thing is said to be in singular while a noun that denotes more than one person or thing is said to be in plural.

Ø FORMATION OF ENGLISH PLURAL NOUNS

1. Most English singular nouns form their plural forms by adding the suffix -s to the singular form for example;

Cat + -s = Cats

Book + -s = Books

Pen + -s = Pens

Cow + -s = Cows

2. Some nouns ending with –ss,-sh, -ch, or -x form their plural forms by adding the suffix - es , to the singular form for example,

Class + -es = Classes,

Tax + -es = Taxes,

Brush + -es = Brushes,

Branch + -es = Branches

Watch + -es = Watches

3. Singular nouns that end in‘-y’ preceded by a consonant generally form their plural forms by changing ‘-y’ to ‘-i’ and then adding the ‘-es’ suffix.

Fly - Fli + -es = Flies

Lady -Ladi + -es = Ladies

City - Citi + -es = Cities

Pony - Poni + -es = Ponies

Army –Armi + -es = Armies

NB: If the ‘-y’ is preceded by a vowel, add an ‘-s’ suffix, for example;

Boy + -s = Boys

Day + -s = Days

Key + -s = Keys

Valley + -s = Valleys

4. Singular nouns ending with letter ‘-o’ preceded by a consonant sound form plural forms by adding ‘-es’ suffix to the singular noun. For example;

Hero + -es= Heroes

Potato + -es= Potatoes

Negro + -es= Negroes

Mango + -es= Mangoes

Echo + -es= Echoes

NB: There are few nouns however, that end with letter ‘-o’ and merely add the ‘-s’ suffix. Examples include;

Piano + -s = Pianos

Kilo + -s = Kilos

Solo + -s = Solos

Photo + -s = Photos

Log + -s = Logs

Ratio + -s = Ratios

Most of these words have foreign origin hence they don’t follow the rules of English which is the host language.

5. Nouns ending with letters ‘-f’ or ‘-fe’ form their plural forms by changing the ‘-f’/-fe into letter ‘-v’ and then adding ‘-es’

Examples,

Thief –Thiev + -es = Thieves

Wolf – Wolv +-es = Wolves

Loaf - Loav +-es = Loaves

Leaf – Leav + -es= Leaves

Self -Selv + -es= Selves

NB: The nouns dwarf, hoof, and scarf take either the suffix -s or -es in plural

Dwarf- dwarves/dwarfs

Hoof – hooves/hoofs

Scarf – scarves/scarfs

The other exception to the rule includes words such as chief, gulf, safe, proof, handkerchief which add the suffix ‘-s’ to form the plural.

6. A few nouns form their plural by mutation, that is, by changing the inside vowels of the singular noun. For example

Man……………Men

Foot…………....Feet

Tooth………….Teeth

Mouse…………Mice

7. There are few nouns that form their plural forms by adding the suffix ‘-en’ to the singular e.g.

Ox…………Oxen

Child…….. Children

8. Some nouns have their singular and plural forms alike –for example, words such as

Swine………Swine

Sheep………Sheep

Deer………..Deer

Cattle………Cattle

9. Some nouns are only used in the plural e.g. trousers, drawers jeans, shorts, pyramids.

10. Some nouns look plural but in fact are singular e.g. mathematics, physics, news, measles mumps and rickets.

11. A compound noun generally forms their plural forms by adding the suffix ‘-s’ to the principle words, e.g.

Commander- in –chief…………Commanders- in -chief

Coat –of- mail………………….Coats-of-mail

Son- in law…………………….Sons-in-law

12. Many nouns taken from foreign languages keep their original plural forms. For example,

Index…………….Indices

Radius…………...Radii

Terminus………...Termini

Formula……........Formulae

Memorandum……Memoranda

Crisis……… Crises

Phenomenon……. Phenomena

Basis……….Base

Criterion…………Criteria

Madame………..Mesdames

Monsieur……….Messieurs

Exercise

1. Change the following sentences into plural.

a) The boy left the biro on the table.

b) A bird perched on the roof of the house.

c) The radio and the video are on.

d) The new dish is on the top shelf.

e) Harness the ox to the cart.

2. Change the following sentences into singular

a) Flies carry diseases.

b) The babies played on the rattles.

c) The wolves ate the sheep.

d) The men told the children stories.

e) The workers loaded the cargo.

Ø FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS IN SENTENCES

A noun may serve several functions in a sentence such as:

a) Subject of the sentence

a) A direct object of the sentence.

b) An indirect object of the sentence.

c) Complement of stative verbs.

· A NOUN AS A SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE

A noun functions as the subject of a sentence; when it performs the action implied in the verb or when it is the topic of that verb, or when it is the topic that the predicate talks about. For example;

a) Mary went to the market.

b) The river burst its banks due to heavy rains.

c) Many people are spending their leisure time on the internet.

· A NOUN AS A DIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

A noun functions as an object when it receives the action implied by the verb. Nouns used as direct objects usually come after the action verbs. To be able to identify the direct object, one should ask the question what or whom after the verb. Examples include;

a) The lion killed the deer.

S V O

· A NOUN AS AN INDIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

A noun that functions as an indirect object always comes before the direct object and it cannot stand on its own. It is also possible to add ‘to’ or ‘for’ before the indirect object or change its position in the sentence. For example

1a) Maria bought Juma a present.

S V IO DO

1b) Maria bought a present for Juma.

S V DO IO

· A NOUN AS COMPLEMENT OF THE VERB

A complement is a word or a phrase that tells us more about the subject. The question ‘how’ can often be asked to find the complement. A noun functions as a complement when it follows a linking verb such as forms of the verb ‘be’ (am, are, was, were, been, being), seems etc. For example,

a) Vivian is a rich woman.

PRONOUNS

INTRODUCTION

Ø A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.

Ø A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun in order to avoid awckwardness that may occur when there is a repetition of a noun.

Ø Like nouns, pronouns identify people, places or things (same function as noun). For example;

i) Neema is absent, because Neema is ill.

To avoid repetition of the noun Neema we replace it with the pronoun shei.e.

ii) Neema is absent because she is ill.

In the following sentences the underlined word is a pronoun:

1. I bought an apple and ate it.

2. I phoned Jane and invited her to dinner.

3. You should have asked permission.

4. Jack told Sally all about herself.

5. Is anyone there?

TYPES OF PRONOUNS

There are eight different types of pronouns in English language. They include;

a) Personal Pronoun

b) Demonstrative Pronouns

c) Indefinite Pronouns

d) Relative Pronouns

e) Interrogative Pronouns

f) Reflexive Pronouns

g) Reciprocal Pronouns

h) Numeral Pronouns

Ø PERSONAL PRONOUNS

These pronouns indicate the identity of a speaker, the person spoken to, and/ or the person spoken about. For example I, me, we, you etc.

FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

There are three forms of personal pronouns namely;

· First person

· Second person

· Third person

1. First person

This shows the person or persons speaking. First person personal pronoun refers to the person who is speaking or writing when referring to him or herself. Examples include;

First person (Masculine or Feminine)

Singular Plural

Subject of verb I We

Object of verb Me Us

Possessive Mine Ours

2. Second person

This shows the person or persons spoken to. The second person personal pronoun refers to the person or thing that is being addressed in the sentence. Examples include;

Second person (Masculine or Feminine)

Singular Plural

Subject of verb You You

Object of verb You You

Possessive Yours Yours

3. Third person

This form shows the person or persons or thing being spoken of . The third person personal pronoun refers to a third party, not to the speaker or writer of the sentence or to the person being addressed. For example;

Third person (Masculine or Feminine)

Singular Plural

Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders

Subject He She It They

Object Him Her It Them

Possessive His Her Its Theirs

NB: Take note of the following confusing pairs;

1a) This is my book (possessive adjective)

b) This book is mine (possessive pronoun)

2a) This is his cat (Possessive Adjective)

b) This cat is his (possessive pronoun)

Ø DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

These are pronouns that are used to indicate or point out things or people. They have the same form as demonstrative adjectives but these pronouns stand in place of a noun, instead of accompanying a noun. They include such words as; this, that, these, and those. Examples include;

a) These are merely excuses. (Pronoun)

b) Both cars are good: but this is better than that. (Pronouns)

c) These are my favorite flowers. (Pronoun)

e) That is my cousin. (Pronoun)

The demonstrative pronouns this and these are used to refer to something or someone close to the writer or speaker.

The demonstrative pronouns that and those are used to refer to something or someone that is far away from the speaker or writer.

Ø INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

These are pronouns which refer to a person or a thing in a general way without referring to any person or thing in particular. Examples of indefinite pronouns includes words such as; all, any, anybody, anyone, both, each, everybody, none, no one, nothing, somebody, nobody, etc. Examples include;

1) Somebody has stolen my watch.

2) Nobody saw the thieves.

3) Can anybody help her?

4) Nobody was awake.

5) Everybody knows at least one other person here.

NB: Indefinite pronouns were traditionally known as distributive pronouns or universal pronouns.

Ø INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Interrogative pronouns are pronouns which are used for asking questions. They include words such as; who, what, whose, whom, which. These among the words sometimes referred to as WH-words because they all begin with the letters ‘wh-‘ the following are examples in sentences;

1) What is your name?

2) Which of the two is better?

3) Who stole our bike?

4) Whom did you see?

5) Whose is the blue car?

NB: ‘who’ is used as the subject of an interrogative sentence, while the object in formal or written English is ‘whom’.

NB: ‘Who’ is used only for persons and is used as the subject of the verb while ‘whom’ is also used for persons but as the object of the verb. ‘What’ is used for non-human beings. ‘Which’ on the other hand, is used for both persons & things.

Ø REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

They are called reflexive pronouns since the action done by the subject turns back upon the subject, that is, the subject and the object of a sentence are the same person or thing.

Reflexive pronouns end in –self or –selves and refer back to a noun or pronoun that has been mentioned earlier in the sentence. The following is a list of reflexive pronouns in English: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves. For example;

a) I hurt myself.

b) He hurt himself.

c) We hurt ourselves.

d) You will have to wash yourself in cold water.

e) Several of the soldiers killed themselves.

Reflexive pronouns are formed when the suffix ‘-self’ is added to my, your, him, her, it, for singular pronouns and ‘-selves’ to our, your, them for the plural pronouns.

When the reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis, they are called emphatic or intensive pronouns. For example;

a) I will do it myself.

b) I, myself, saw him do it.

c) But you, yourself said it is a good idea. (yourself means you and nobody else)

d) The restaurant, itself, is a pleasant place but the food is horrible.

e) The town,itself, is not very attractive.

Ø RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns which are used to indicate a two-way relationship or to convey the idea of reciprocity. These pronouns represent two or more persons or things in an interactive manner, that is, they interchange the action denoted by the verb. For example,

a) They cheated each other.

b) Sometimes couples lie to one another.

c) They beat each other/ one another.

d) The two sisters have hated each other from childhood.

e) The family members blame one another for their mother’s death.

Ø NUMERICAL PRONOUNS

These pronouns cite numbers which could be cardinal or ordinal. Cardinal numbers include one, two, three, etc. while ordinal numbers includes first, second, third etc.

They qualify as pronouns when they take the place of a noun of a sentence. For example;

a) The opposing team cut him off as one of the members.

b) She came third in the exams.

Ø RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns are pronouns that introduce a relative clause. If a word relates two statements about the same person or thing, we call it a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun is used to introduce a subordinate clause. These are pronouns that refer to or that relate to same nouns mentioned before them. Examples include such words as; who, whose, whom, which, and that.

1a) I met Gerald. Gerald had just returned.

b) I met Gerald who had just returned.

2a) I found the pen. I had lost the pen.

b) I found the pen which I had lost.

From the above examples, it is clear that relative pronouns act as pronouns and connective device at the same time. They also act as subject or objects in the subordinate part of sentences, while as connectives, they join the subordinate to the main clause.

3) The American who became president is Obama..

NB: To avoid ambiguity in sentences, place the relative pronoun as near as possible to the noun it relates.

Uses of relative pronouns

1. Who – used for persons in subject position -The boy who was crying is my brother.

2. Whom – used for persons in object position -She is the woman whom I chose to marry.

3. Which and that – used for things without life -This is the gift which I chose for you. Or-Take anything that you like.

4. Whose – used to show possession -The man whose car was stolen is crying.

5. Where – shows place -This is where I lost my wallet.

INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS

Pronouns usually inflect for

· Person,

· Gender,

· Number

· Case.

The above can be summarized as follows;

CASE PERSON AND NUMBER

First person (Common Gender)

Singular Plural

Nominative (subject) I We

Accusative (object) Me Us

Genitive (possession) Mine Ours

Second person (Common Gender)

Singular Plural

Nominative (subject) You You

Accusative (object) You You

Genitive (possession) Yours Yours

Third person (Common Gender)

Singular Plural

Masculine FeminineNeuter All Genders

Nominative (subject) He She It They

Accusative (object) Him Her It Them

Genitive (possession)His Her Its Theirs

NB: The pronouns I, we, me, us, you, your, they, them, theirs are said to have common gender since they can refer to either male or a female.

Exercise1

1. Complete these sentences with the correct personal pronoun.

I remembered the English book but Mary forgot--------------
That dog barks all night. _____________ is a nuisance
That is Stella. ___she______ is my sister.

The Titanic was a new ship_____that__ People thought would never sink but __it___did.
This is my brother. ___he______ is taller than___me_______.

2. Choose the correct pronoun(s) for each sentence.

1. She/her went to the market.

2. It was she/her.

3. I talked to he/him.

4. Can you come with we/us?

5. If you were I/me, would you accept the job?

3. Fill the blanks with suitable relative pronouns.

People love boys ______who___respect their parents.
I don’t know _______what__________ he wants.
He ______who_______ does his best shall be praised.
It is an ill wind ____that/which________ blows no body good.
No man canlose_____what_______ he never had.

4. Join together each of the following pairs of sentences using an appropriate relative pronoun.

I know Moses .The man has been to Iceland
The thief stole a watch .The thief was punished.
I met the boy. He was very cruel.
Here is the pencil. You lost it yesterday.
Here is the book. You were asking for the book.

5. Identify the pronoun and state its type

1. Many of the streets were crowded. (indefinite)

2. He cut himself with a kitchen knife. (personal-2^ndperson,reflexive)

3. This looks better with your blue suit. (demonstrative)

4. We ,ourselves decorated the rooms.(personal-1^st person,reflexive)

5. The record that John bought was original. (relative)

6. Passengers were asked to return to their seats. (No pronoun)

7. The girl who won the award is my neighbour.(relative)

8. Only one of the answers was correct. (numerical)

9. He deserves what he got.(personal-3^rd person, relative)

10. All the children brought their own lunch.(indefinate)

6. Choose the suitable personal pronoun

1. Either you or ---- -------- (they, them) will win the prize.

2. On the table were letters of John and (he,him).

3. They play tennis better than (we, us).

4. Between you and (I, me), Jane is likely to win.

5. She told us and (they, them) to work together.

6. (She, her) and I were rewarded for the work.

7. My sister acts on impulse more than (I, me).

8. The winner of the contest was (she, her).

9. She forgot (her, hers) book at the library.

10. This land is (their, theirs).

ADJECTIVES

INTRODUCTION

An adjective is a word that describes or gives more information about a noun or a pronoun. An adjective is said to qualify a noun or a pronoun because it limits the word it describes in some way by making it more specific. An adjective usually comes before the word it describes. For example;

1. Old man

2. That house

3. Two cows

4. Red book

5. Tiny dog

An adjective may, however, come after the form of the verb ‘be’, or ‘stative, verbs, for example,

a) The speech was boring.

b) The food is delicious.

c) The weather is hot.

d) The weather seems cold.

e) The food feels hot.

Adjectives usually tell us something about the colour, size, quantity, quality or classification of a noun or pronoun. In the following sentences the underlined words are adjectives:

1. She wore a white dress.

2. It was a huge dog.

3. They had five children.

4. They were sad people.

5. It was a Victorian house.

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES

The following are the types of adjectives based on their meanings:

Adjectives of Quantity

These adjectives show how much of a thing is meant. They answer to the questions how much of a thing? For example,

a) I ate some rice.

b) He was little intelligence.

c) You have no sense.

d) He paid the whole some as expected.

e) She ate half of her meal.

Adjective of Quality

These adjectives are also called descriptive adjective and they shows the kind or quality of a person or thing. For example,

a) Mwanza is a large city.

b) Goodluck is an honest man.

c) The foolish old man tried to steal.

d) Amina is in sound health.

e) I had a pleasant journey.

Adjectives of quality answer the question; of what kind or what sort of a person or thing.

Adjective of number

These adjectives are also called numeral or limiting adjectives and they show how many persons or things are meant. For example;

a) The hand has five fingers.

b) I have taught many things today.

c) Sunday is the first day of the week.

d) All men must die.

e) Most boys like football.

Adjectives of number answer the question how many?

Demonstrative adjectives

These adjectives points out which person or thing is meant. For example

a) This boy is strong than Martin.

b) That boy is stronger than Charles.

c) Those mangoes are sour.

d) I hate such things.

Demonstrative adjectives answer the question which?

Possessive adjectives

These adjectives show possession and also modify the meaning of the noun they accompany. For example,

a) My house is near the hill.

b) Her dad was taken ill yesterday.

c) Its tail is broken.

d) Our desk is not here.

f) His pen has been stolen.

Interrogative adjectives

These are adjectives used with the nouns to ask questions. English language has three interrogative adjectives. They are; which, whose, and what. For example,

a. Whose pen did Mosses use?

b. Which way shall we go?

c. What book will Catherine use to teach?

Emphatic adjectives

Emphatic adjectives are adjectives which you place in front of a noun to emphasize your feelings about something or to emphasize the degree of something, as absolute, pure etc.

ü The play was an utter disaster.

ü It was pure magic

ü He is an utter idiot.

ü She is a complete fool.

ü The campaign was a total failure.

Exercise 1

Identify the adjective in the following sentences and state whether they are adjectives of quality / quantity/number/ or demonstrative.

1. These pens were bought yesterday. (demonstrative)

2. I need that list by noon.(demonstrative)

3. Thirty exercise books were on the teacher’s desk.(number)

4. Which dog bit the man?(interrogative)

5. Every cloud has its silver lining.(limiting)

6. My father lives in Dodoma.(possesive)

7. He died a glorious death(quality)

8. She comes here every day.(limiting)

4.3 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES

a) Many adjectives are formed from nouns using suffixes;

Noun Adjective

Nation national

Option optional

Hope hopeful

Mercy merciful

Hope hopeless

Child childless

Friend friendly

Time timely

b) Some adjectives are formed from verbs by use of suffixes such as; -able, -ive, -less etc.

Verb Adjective

Break breakable

Remark remarkable

Act active

React reactive

Tire tireless

Move movable

d) Some adjectives are formed from other adjectives. For example;

Adjective Adjective

Tragic tragical

Three threefold

Black blackish

White whitish

Sick sickly

Exercise 2

1 Form adjectives from the following nouns

· TimelyHealthly

· Easly Boyish

· PardonableOutrageous

2. Form adjective from the following verbs;

· Like(able)Suit(able)

· Please(able)Create(ive)

· Explore- exploratory

3. Form adjective from the following adjectives

Whole/some/sale/hearted/meal

White-whitish

Black-blackish

4.4 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Some adjectives can change in form to show comparison. For example,

Tall-taller-tallest

These varying forms are called degrees of comparison tall being positive degree, taller comparative degree and tallest being superlative degree.

NB Absolute adjectives, for example, round, square etc. are not capable of realistic comparison.

4.4.1 KINDS OF DEGREES

4.4.1.1Positive Degree

This is the base form of the adjective that is used to describe one person, place or thing without reference to any other .e.g.

i. A large room

ii. A wide selection

iii. A heavy load

iv. A good student

4.4.1.2Comparative Degree

This is used to compare two people, places, ideas, quantities or things of the same kind or class. The comparative degree marker is –erfor regular adjectives or the word more for irregular adjectives. The comparative degree is usually followed by the word than e.g.

a) She is older than I.

b) She is more beautiful than I.

4.4.1.3Superlative degree

This degree shows the highest degree of a quantity and is used when one object is compared with all other things of the same class.ie comparison of more than two things of the same class. The morpheme –estfor regular adjectives or the word most for irregular adjectives.

The article ‘the’ must always come before the superlative form of the adjective. Examples

a) She is the oldest of all.

b) He is thefastest of them all.

4.4.2 FORMATION OF COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

1. Most adjectives of one syllable form the comparative degree by adding ‘-er’ and the superlative by adding ‘-est’ to the positive degree. For example;

Positive Comparative Superlative

New newer newest

Rich richer richest

Old older oldest

Black blacker blackest

Long longer longest

2. If the positive degree ends in the letters ‘-e’ only the suffixes ‘-r’ and ‘-st’ are added to form their comparatives and superlatives respectively. For example;

Positive Comparative Superlative

Brave, braver bravest

Fine finer finest,

Large larger largest

Late later latest

3. If the positive degree ends in letter ‘-y’ preceded by a consonant sound, then the letter ‘-y’ changes to ‘-i’ while adding the suffixes -er or -est. For example;

Positive Comparative Superlative

Busy busier busiest

Dry drier driest

Easy easier easiest

Heavy heavier heaviest

Noisy noisier noisiest

4. If the positive ends in letter ‘-y’ preceded by a vowel, then the letter ‘-y’ doesn’t change while adding the suffixes ‘-er’ or ‘-est’. For example,

Positive Comparative Superlative

Gay gayer gayest

Grey greyer greyest

5. If the positive degree ends in one consonant preceded by a short vowel, then the final consonant is doubled while adding the suffixes ‘-er’ or ‘-est’ . For example,

Positive Comparative Superlative

Big bigger biggest

Fat fatter fattest

Hot hotter hottest

Mad madder maddest

Red redder reddest

6. All adjectives of more than two syllables and some of two syllables also form their comparatives by adding more and superlatives by adding most before the positive degree. For example,

Positive Comparative Superlative

Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

Courageous more courageous most courageous

Difficult more difficult most difficult

Proper more proper most proper

Useful more useful most useful

7. Some adjective are compared irregularly i.e. they change to different forms when comparatives and superlatives are formed. For example;

Positive Comparative Superlative

Bad worse worst

Good better best

Evil worse worst

Hind hinder hindmost

Far farther farthest

Bad worse worst

Double comparatives and superlatives are not used e.g.

*a) This book is more better than that.

*b) This book is more best of all.

When two qualities of the same person or thing are compared, the comparative must be formed by using ‘more’ with the positive not ‘er’. For example,

c) He is more honest than industrious

The positive and the superlative degrees cannot be mixed up in the sentences. For example;

*d) Lucy is the best and wise of all the girls.

4. There are a number of adjectives that make their comparative forms with either ‘-er’ or more and their superlative forms with - est or most. For example;

Positive Comparative superlative

Pretty prettier/more pretty prettiest/ most pretty

Fierce fiercer/more fierce fiercest/most fierce

Exercise 3

1) Write the comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives.

· Black(more/most)

· Evil(worse/worst)

· Mad (madder/maddest)

· Far(farther /farthest)

· In(inner/innermost)

· Out(outter/utter outmost/uttermost)

· Perfect(same)

· Universal(same)

4.5 ORDER OF THE ADJECTIVES

The preferred order of adjective in a sentence is based on whether the adjectives are either opinion or fact adjectives.

Opinion adjectives give an opinion on something or somebody e.g. wise, nice, beautiful etc. Different people hold different opinions.

Fact adjectives on the other hand give us factual information that is not debatable about the noun e.g. British, small, wooden, digital etc. When we use an opinion and a fact adjective together in a sentences opinion adjectives come before fact adjectives i.e. fact adjectives are closer to nouns. For example,

a) A beautiful, round table not *A round, beautiful table.

b) A lovely, long hair not * A long, lovely hair.

Sometimes we use more than one fact adjectives in a sentence. In this case, the following order is preferred;

Size/shape	Age	Color	Origin	Make
How big? short, huge	How old? young, new, old	Of what color? Green, blue, red	Where from? Kenyan, Japanese	What is it made of? Leather, wooden, woolen

For example;

1) She bought a huge, old, yellow, Japanese, wooden bed.

Size Age Color Origin Make

Exercise 4

Fill in the blanks with the correct order of the adjectives in the brackets

Mine is the------------------------- handbag(blue, leather, small)(small blue letha)
I live in a ---------------------------- house (furnished, old, large)(large,old,furn)
East Africa has ----------------- force (combined military, powerful)(powa,comb,mila)
There is a --------------- rug in the room ((soft, wonderful, woolen )(wonda,soft,wooln)
I have just finished reading a------------- novel (long, American, boring)bori,long,ame
She has a ------ clock ( useful, alarm, digital)(useful,digital.alarm)

ADVERBS

INTRODUCTION

Ø An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Ø An adverb answers the questions how? When? Where? and to what extent? something is or was done. Examine the following examples;

a) The dog followed Jane everywhere. (modifies a verb)

b) Martin is fairly handsome. (modifies an adjective)

c) I have been to Mwanza twice now. (modifies an adverb)

Ø Sometimes adverbs modify phrases, for example;

a) Gerald was truly in love.

b) Martin cried loudly the whole night.

Ø Occasionally, an adverb may modify the whole sentence, for example;

a) Unfortunately, this has happened.

b) Perhaps she is ill.

c) Truly, he is a rogue.

TYPES OF ADVERBS

Ø Adverbs may be divided into the following classes, according their functions within the sentences they occur.

ADVERBS OF TIME

Ø Adverbs of time tell us when an action took place.

Ø They include such words as; today, yesterday, tomorrow, now, then before, late, early etc. For example,

1. I have heard this before/ now/ lately.

2. He arrived late.

3. The end soon came.

4. I hurt my knee yesterday.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

Ø These adverbs tell us about the frequency of an action, that is, how often, or frequently it takes place.

Ø They include words such as; once, often, frequently, seldom, always etc. For example;

a) I have seen you twice.

b) He often makes mistakes.

c) Mary called in again.

d) He always tries to do his best.

ADVERBS OF PLACE

Ø Adverbs of place tell us where an action took place.

Ø They also tell us where something or somebody is.

Ø This group includes such words as; here, there, inside, outside, eastwards etc. For example,

a) She left the ball here.

b) They went South to look for jobs.

c) What were you doing here?

d) They were traveling west.

ADVERBS OF MANNER

Ø Adverbs of manner tell us how the action of a verb took place or was done.

Ø This group includes such words as; slowly, quietly, quickly etc. for example,

a) Don’t walk too fast, I can’t keep up.

b) Mary reads clearly.

c) The warrior fought bravely.

d) The child slept soundly.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE/QUANTITY

Ø These adverbs show how much or to what degree or to what extent an adjective is.

Ø Notice that they modify adjectives.

Ø Examples include such words as; enough, too, so, completely, altogether, quite, rather, etc.

a) The mangoes are almost ripe.

b) I am rather busy today.

c) The new business is fairly successful.

d) Martin is far more polite than his brother.

ADVERBS OF CAUSE/ REASON

Ø These are adverbs that relate to the cause or reason for an action.

Ø Examples include such words as; hence, therefore etc. for example,

a) He is hence unable to refute the charges.

b) I therefore resigned and started looking for a new job

ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION

Ø These adverbs underline the affirmative or negative meaning of sentences, phrases or clauses.

Ø For example,

a) Surely he won’t be sent to prison.

b) She certainly sings beautifully.

c) I will not allow you to go with him.

NB: An adverb may belong to different classes depending on the context in which it is used. For example,

1a) Don’t go far from here. (Adverb of place)

b) Wawira is far clever than she looks. (Adverb of degree)

2a) Mercy sings delightfully. (Adverb of manner)

b) The weather is delightfully cool. (Adverb of degree)

Exercises 1

Underline the adverbs in the following sentences and state their types.

a) The car drove swiftly down the hill. manner

b) You are completely mistaken. Affirmative

c) Have you been here before?place/time

d) John and I meet quite often.(degree/frequency

e) They all moved forward. place

f) Try again. frequency

g) Where is Abdul? place

h) The son is out in Iran. place

i) Why are you that late? Int adv of reason

FORMATION OF ADVERBS

Ø Some adverbs are formed from nouns by use of suffixes for example -wise, -ward .

Noun Adverb

Length Lengthwise

Clock Clockwise

Other Otherwise

Up Upwards

Back Backwards

Down Downwards

Ø Many adverbs, especially the adverbs of manner, can be formed from adjectives by adding the suffix –ly.

Adjective Adverb

Wise wisely

Quick quickly

Bad badly

Wise wisely

Sad sadly

Ø When the adjectives ends in letter ‘-y’ preceded by a consonant, then the letter ‘y’ changes to ‘-i’ before adding the suffix ‘-ly’. For example;

Happy- happily

Ready Readily

Heavy Heavily

Ø Some adverbs are made up of adjective + noun. For example;

Adjective Noun Adverb

Mid way Midway

Short hand Shorthand

Side ways Sideways

Some times Sometimes

Mean while Meanwhile

Ø Some adverbs are made up of preposition + noun. For example;

Preposition Noun Adverb

Over board overboard

Off guard off-guard

In side inside

By pass bypass

Up hill uphill

On line online

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Ø Some adverbs, like adjectives have three degrees of comparison i.e. positive, comparative and superlative while some other adverbs cannot be compared.

Ø For example, adverbs such as here, there, then, now, always etc .cannot be compared.

1) Some adverbs form their comparative degree by adding the suffix -er and superlative degree by adding -est to the positive degree.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Hard harder hardest

Soon sooner soonest

Early earlier earliest

High higher highest

2) Other adverbs form their comparative degrees by adding the word more and superlatives by adding the word most before the positive degree.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Quickly more quickly most quickly

Easily more easily most easily

Loudly more loudly most loudly

Happily more happily most happily

3) Some adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives forms. For example;

Positive Comparative Superlative

Badly/ill worse worst

Well better best

Much more most

Little less least

POSITION OF ADVERBS IN SENTENCES

There are three main positions for adverbs in sentences;

AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE

a) Tomorrow we shall meet at the chief’s camp.

b) Perhaps Mary should pursue a master degree before getting married.

AT THE MIDDLE OF A SENTENCE

a) I was very hungry by lunch time.

b) Our teacher rarely comes to class late.

AT THE END OF A SENTENCE

a) I will meet you there.

b) My motto is work hard.

c) The church is cleaned daily.

Exercise 2

1. Put the comparative form of the adverbs in brackets in the spaces provided.

1. Jane works--------- than her sister and brother. (hard)er

2. She sings---- than anyone else in class. (beautifully)more

3. King Solomon is said to have ruled ------ than any other king before or after him. (wisely) more

2. Use superlative forms of the adverbs in brackets to fill in the blanks.

a) He who runs-------------wins the race. (fast)est

b) She is the ----------------intelligent girl in her class. (much)most

c) Who arrived ----------- at school this morning? (early)earliest

PREPOSITIONS

INTRODUCTION

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show how it relates with some other nouns within a sentence. For example;

I put my bag on the table.
The goat is in the field.

If the prepositions ‘in’ and ‘on’ are left out the above sentences, they would not have clear or specific meanings. For example, in sentence (1) above, the bag could be on the table, under the table, or besides the table and the meaning is made clearer when the preposition is included.

6.1 Types of Prepositions

Prepositions can be divided into two major groups, namely;

6.1.1 Simple prepositions

These are one word prepositions, such as;out, in, after, off, down, past, etc. for example;

1) Maryanne is at the airport.

2) Tanzania is praised for her beauty.

3) Edward received a letter from his mother.

4) The president talked on corruption.

5) He is fond of poetry.

6.1.2 Complex prepositions

These are preposition which contain two or more words e.g. according to, with effect from, out of, in the event of, in spite of, opposite to, exclusive of etc. For example;

1) A word used instead of a noun is called a pronoun.

2) He came out of the house.

3) The wedding was cancelled due to lack of venue.

4) I stay away from home.

5) We increase our knowledge by means of books.

6.2 CONCEPTS EXPRESSED BY PREPOSITIONS

6.2.1 PLACE

These prepositions tell us where a person or thing is in relation to another, e.g.

a) The cups are above the shelf.

b) Maria is at the cafeteria.

c) The water is in the drum.

d) The seat is along the wall.

6.2.2TIME

These prepositions are used to express time or to refer to a specified duration of time. For example,

a) The doctor arrived at noon.

b) The film ends at 1600hrs.

c) You must return before evening.

d) I worked in the bank for six years.

e) Janet taught the class till 4pm.

NOTE:

At in the above sentences is used to refer to a specific time.

The preposition in is used to express a specified duration of time. For example,

a) Martin was born in July.

b) The schools will open in two weeks’ time.

c) The building will be complete in six months.

The preposition on is mostly used to indicate days and dates for example;

a) The exams start on Friday.

b) The conference will start on 10^th July, 2010.

6.2.3 MANNER

These are prepositions that show the way someone did something. Examples include;

a) Juma fought with courage.

b) Gerald worked with earnest.

c) He missed death by inches.

d) I earn money by teaching.

6.2.4 CAUSE/REASON/ PURPOSE-

These prepositions indicate the reason why something happened or why someone did something. Examples include;

a) He labored for a good reason.

b) Education is meant for character formation.

c) She died of heart attack.

d) Mushi lost the purse through negligence.

e) Moses shivered with fever.

6.2.5 POSSESSION

These prepositions show ownership between two nouns i.e. something belonging to someone. Examples include;

a) She loved the girl with blue eyes.

b) Catherine is a lady of noble character.

c) Dodoma is the capital of Tanzania.

d) Crispin is a man of means.

6.2.6 DIRECTION

Prepositions of direction show the direction towards or from which someone or something moves, for example;

a) He walked into the class.

b) Mary ran towards the police station.

c) The moon moves round the earth.

d) The bus moved down the hill.

6.2.7 CONTRAST

These prepositions mark contrast between two clauses in a complex sentence. Examples include;

a) For his faults I admire him.

b) In spite of all her wealth, she is not contented.

c) For one enemy, he has hundred friends

d) Not withstanding my efforts, I failed in the exams.

6.3 POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS IN SENTENCES

Prepositions can be placed:

6.3.1 IMMEDIATELY BEFORE A NOUN. FOR EXAMPLE

a) He went to school.

b) They traveled by bus.

c) Mary is resting in bed.

6.3.2PREPOSITION CAN ALSO BE PLACED IMMEDIATELY AFTER A VERB, OR AN ADJECTIVE

a) The nurse attended to the patient. (after a verb)

b) I do believe in a higher being. (after a verb)

c) Most people are afraid of darkness. (after an adjective)

d) It was kind of you to invite me to you party. (after an adjective)

6.3.3PREPOSITION CAN ALSO COME AT THE END OF A SENTENCE ESPECIALLY IN QUESTIONS CONTAINING WORDS SUCH AS: WHO? WHAT? OR WHICH?, IN SOME PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS, AND IN RELATIVE CLAUSES.

a) Who does she live with?

b) Which box is the book in?

c) All feasible ideas were brought in. (passive)

d) I don’t know where they are going to. (relative clauses)

e) What are you talking about?

6.3.4 PREPOSITIONS ARE PLACED AT THE END OF SENTENCES WHEN THE OBJECT IS A RELATIVE PRONOUN ‘THAT’.

a) It is the train that I am waiting for.

b) This is the resort that I spent in

c) This is the novel that I have been talking about.

Exercise

Insert the correct preposition in the following

1. We should not rely_____ somebody.

2. His uncle died ______ lung-cancer

3. Why are you so jealous ____ your brother

4. I don’t like to part _____ my book.

5. The man is guilty____ his lying

6. I am senior ____him in service

7. Have you any comment____ this proposal.

8. Woolen clothes are not appropriate____a hot summer day.

9. She is proud ____her new car

10. Distribute the books_____those two children

VERBS

WHAT IS A VERB?

A verb is a word that is used to express or describe an activity, a feeling or an experience.

Put in other words, a verb is a word that is used to describe an action, whether active or passive.

A verb tells us what someone is or was doing and a verb can tell us about being (state of being) or even possession. For example;

1. Anna exercises daily. (The verb ‘exercises’ expresses an activity)

2. President Kikwete is a humble person. (The verb ‘is’ expresses a state of being)

3. Vicky feels sad. (The verb ‘feel’´ expresses a feeling)

4. Maria has blue eyes (The verb ‘has’´ expresses possession)

PRINCIPLE PARTS OF A VERB

Generally each verb has three principle parts namely:

1.Present

2.The past

3.The past participle

These principle parts are used to show time in a sentence and they occur in two forms of a verb i.e. the regular and the irregular form.

TYPES OF VERBS

Verbs are classified into various types by use of various parameters, they include:

i) tense formation

ii) Number of objects following the verb

iii) whether they are main verbs or helping verbs

iv) Whether they are action verbs or stative verbs

1. TENSE FORMATION

Here verbs are classified based on whether a verb takes on the suffix ‘–ed’ /-d or not to form its past simple and past participle tenses. Under this criterion, verbs are classified into;

1. Regular Verbs

2. Irregular verbs

a. Regular Verbs

Regular verbs form their simple past tense and past participle forms through the addition of the suffix ‘–ed’ or ‘-d’. For example,

Verb Simple past tense Past participle

Jump Jumped Jumped

Dazzle dazzled dazzled

Walk walked Walked

Laugh Laughed Laughed

Arrive arrived arrived

ü If a one-syllable verb ends in a single vowel and a consonant, we double the final consonant then we add the suffix ‘–ed/-d’. For example,

Stop……… stopped

Hop………..hopped

Fit………….fitted

Hug………..hugged

Tap………...tapped

Pat…………patted

Exceptions: We never double the letter –w,-x,-y as shown below;

Bow……….bowed

Fix…………fixed

Play………..played

If a one-syllable verb already ends in –e, we just add the suffix ‘–d’. This is shown below;

Hope………hope

Stare………stared

If a one-syllable verb ends in two vowels and a consonant, we do not double the final consonant.

Steer……..steered

Peer………peered

Fear………feared

Pour………poured

If a verb has more than one syllable and ends in a single vowel and a consonant, we usually double the final consonant if the last syllable is stressed.

Admit………admitted

Prefer……….preferred

Occur……….occurred

But;

Offer………..offered

Open………..opened

Happen……..happened

Visit………..visited

Tamper……..tampered

NB: Even though the last syllable is not stressed, we always double the letter ‘–l’ when adding the suffix ‘-ed/-d’ to words ending in one vowel and ‘–l’.

Travel……..travelled

Control……controlled

If a verb ends in a consonant, -y, we change the letter -y to -i when we add the suffix ‘–ed/-d’.

Try………..tried

Cry……….cried

Carry……..carried

Hurry…….hurried

If a verb ends in the letters ‘–ic’, we add letter ‘-k’ before the suffix ‘–ed/-d’.

Picnic……picnicked

Panic…….panicked

b. Irregular Verbs

As the name suggests, irregular verbs have no pattern /formulae in past tense or past participle tense formation. Some irregular verbs change in various forms while some do not change at all.

Some one-syllable verbs do not have a separate past form. The verb remains the same in the past as it is in the present as the following examples show;

Set…………..set

Bet………….bet

Bid………….bid

Cast…………cast

Burst………...burst

The majority of irregular verbs can be broken down into particular groups with their own pattern(s). This is demonstrated below;

Present tense form	Simple past tense	Past participle form
Cling	Clung	Clung
Fling	Flung	Flung
Sting	Stung	Stung
Swing	Swung	Swung
Wring	Wrung	Wrung

Present tense form	Simple past tense form	Past participle form
Drink	Drank	Drunk
Ring	Rang	Rung
Sing	Sang	Sung
Spring	Sprang	Sprung
Stink	Stank	Stunk

Present form	Past simple form	Past participle form
Bleed	Bled	Bled
Breed	Bred	Bred
Feed	Fed	Fed
Flee	Fled	Fled
Lead	Led	Led

Present form	Past simple form	Past participle form
Pay	Paid	Paid
Lay	Laid	Laid
Say	Said	Said

Present form	Past simple form	Past participle form
Catch	Caught	Caught
Teach	Taught	Taught

Present form	Past simple form	Past participle form
Bring	brought	Brought
Buy	Bought	Bought
Fight	Fought	Fought
Seek	Sought	Sought
Think	Thought	Thought

Present form	Past simple form	Past participle form
Bind	Bound	Bound
Find	Found	Found
Grind	Ground	Ground
Wind	Wound	Wound

Present form	Past simple form	Past participle form
Draw	Drew	Drawn
Know	Knew	Known
Throw	Threw	Thrown

INFLECTIONS OF VERBS

Inflection refers to the process by which affixes are attached to words or stems so as to mark various grammatical categories.

English verbs typically inflect for tense, voice, aspect and mood and to a lesser degree person. This module will only concern itself with tense and voice. Students are advised to read the others from relevant books.

1. TENSE

Tense is a form which a verb takes to show the time of action and its degree of completeness. There are three types of tenses namely:

1.Present tense

2.Past tense

3.Future tense

Each of the above tenses can be further divided into four parts to show the degree of completeness of an action.

ü Present tense

Present tense is the tense that expresses activities that happen concurrently with the time of speaking or writing. It can be divided into four parts namely; present simple, present continuous, present perfect, and present perfect continuous.

a) Present simple tense

Present simple tense expresses activities, actions or events taking place at the moment of speaking.

ü He reads a book.

ü I read a book.

ü Musa reads a book.

Uses of the present simple tense

The present simple tense is used to;

ü To express habitual actions; as

· Alex yawns when bored.

ü To express general truths ; as

· The sun rises in the east.

ü To discuss hobbies; as

· Edgar plays computer games during his free time.

ü To show the condition in which a person or object is in; as

· The weather is/seems cloudy/sunny.

ü To state a person’s occupation

· Gerald is a lecturer.

ü To indicate a relationship

· Omutiti and Ocham are business partners.

Rule of formation: Subject+ Verb+ Object

NB: one is supposed to add –s to the form of the verb with subject he, she, it and proper nouns (third person singular).

b) Present Continuous tense

Present continuous tense is used to show an action that is in progress and is incomplete at the moment of speaking or writing. For example;

ü I am reading the book.

ü He is eating matoke.

Uses of the present continuous tense

The present continuous tense is used to;

ü To express an action going on at the time of speaking;

· The boys are trapping birds by the river.

ü To express the future in arrangements that have already been made;

· I am going to visit Dodoma next week

Rule of formation: Subject+ is/am/ are+ Verb+ -ing (Object)

c) Present Perfect tense

This tense is used to express acts that have just been completed in the immediate past but their effects/ impacts can still be felt at the time of speaking. For example;

ü I have read the book.

ü He has eaten matoke.

Uses of the present perfect

The present perfect tense is used to;

ü To indicate activities which were completed in the immediate past.

· He has just gone home.

ü To describe past events whose effects are felt in the present.

· I have cut my finger and it is bleeding now.

Rule of formation: Subject + has/ have Verb + past participle+ Object

d) Present Perfect Continuous

This tense is used to express activities which began in the past but is still going on. For example

ü John has been playing football for two hours.

The above sentence means that John is playing now and he started two hours ago and still going on.

Uses of the present perfect continuous tense

Present Perfect continuous is used

ü For an action which began at sometime in the past and is still going on

• I have been learning Spanish since last year (I am still learning)

Rule of formation Subject: + has/ have + been + Verb + -ing (Object)

ü Past tense

Past tense is used to indicate an action completed sometime prior(before) to the time of speaking. It can be divided into four parts namely; simple past, past continuous, past perfect, and past perfect continuous.

a) Simple Past Tense

This expresses actions that took place sometimes in the past. For example;

ü Mary ate a meal.

ü I lost my book.

Uses of the past simple tense

The simple past tense is used to;

ü Indicate a completed action in the past.

· Joshua passed his national exams with flying colors.

ü To express past habits.

· He always carried a bible.

Rule of formation Subject +Verb (past) + (Object)

b) Past Continuous Tense

This tense is used to show actions, activities or events going on for some time in the past. For example;

ü They were reading the book.

Uses of the past continuous tense

The past continuous tense is used to;

ü To express an action going on at sometime in the past

· They were watching television / football yesterday evening

ü To express a persistent habit in the past

· Alan was always telling us about his wife.

Rule of formation: Subject+ was/were +Verb+ -ing + (Object)

c) Past Perfect tense

Past perfect tense shows activities, actions or events that had been completed before a given time in the past. For example

ü Mary had eaten a meal when I arrived.

ü I had played a match before you arrived

Uses of the past perfect tense

The past perfect tense is used to;

ü To express one of the two past actions which had been completed earlier

· When we reached the theatre, the booking counter had been closed

Rule of formation Subject+ had + Verb + past particle + (Object)

d) Past Perfect Continuous

This tense is used to show an action which had been going on before another action in the past. For example

ü I had been eating a meal when she arrived

ü Mary had been waiting for her when she come

Uses of the past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous tense is used to;

ü To express an action which began and had been in progress before another action started

· Munga had been teaching at the university for more than a year before she left for Tanzania.

Rule of formation Subject+ had been +Verb +-ing+ (Object)

ü Future Tense

Future tense is used to express activities, events or actions that will take place in the future or have been planned to take place in the future or at some point after the time of speaking or writing.

Future tense can be divided into four parts namely; simple future, future continuous, future perfect, and future perfect continuous.

a) Simple Future

This tense shows an action that has still to take place. For example,

ü Mary will eat a meal tomorrow.

ü I will go back to Dodoma next week.

Uses of the simple future tense

The simple future tense is used to;

ü To express future action

· I shall meet her tomorrow

Rule of formation Subject+ will/shall +be+ verb+ Object

b)Future Continuous Tense

This tense shows an action as going on for sometime in the future. For example;

ü Mary will be eating a meal.

ü They will be playing football.

Uses of the future continuous tense

The future continuous tense is used to;

ü To express an action going on in future

· When I go home she will be waiting for me.

ü For future planned action

· Mushi will be opening a beauty shop next week

Rule of formation Subject+ will/shall +be +Verb+ -ing+ Object

c) Future Perfect Tense

This tense is used to show an action that will have been completed at a future time. For example;

ü I will have finished my paper tomorrow by this time.

ü Mary will have eaten a meal.

Use of the future Perfect tense

The future perfect tense is used to;

ü To express future completed action

· I shall have written the letter by tomorrow

· By next November, I will have received my promotion.

Rule of formation Subject+ will/shall +have+ Verb+ past particle+ Object

d) Future Perfect continuous

This tense is used to show an action that will be going on over a period of time and will end in the future. For example

ü She will have been working since Monday.

ü Mary will have been eating a meal.

Uses of the future perfect continuous tense

The future perfect continuous tense is used to;

ü For an action going on in future and it will continue to a certain time in future

· By next September, she will have been working in SAUT for five years.

ü Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect.

· Kamau will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour

Rule of formation Subject+ will/ shall +have been +Verb+- ing+ (Object)

CONJUNCTIONS

INTRODUCTION

A conjunction is a word which joins together clauses, sentences and sometimes words or phrases. Examples include;

1. God made the country and man-made the town. (Two sentences)

2. Two and Two make four. (two words)

3. Halima and Rama are brothers. (Two words)

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions can be divided into two major classes. These are;

· Coordinating conjunctions

· Subordinating conjunctions

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These are conjunctions which join together two sentences, clauses or phrases of equal rank or grammatical weight.

Kinds of coordinating conjunction

i. Cumulative/copulative or additive conjunctions

These add one statement to another. For example; and, no less than, so, also, both, as well as etc. as shown below;

a) As well as writing the letter for me, he posted it.

b) He is my lecturer so I respect him.

c) He cooked ‘matoke’ and ate them.

d) They not only invited me to dinner, but also sent a car to pick me.

ii. Adversative/ contrastive conjunctions

These are conjunctions that express opposition or contrast between two statements. They include; but, nevertheless, still, whereas, only, yet etc.

a) Collins is poor but he is honest.

b) She was late, still she was not punished.

c) Peter beats his wife yet he loves her.

d) My sister is lazy where as my brother is intelligent.

iii. Disjunctive/ Alternative conjunctions

These conjunctions express a choice between two alternatives. Included here are; or, nor, either-or, neither-nor, else, etc. For example;

a) She must repent or she will die.

b) Agnes is neither a teacher nor a nurse.

c) Would you like some tea or soda?

d) Either he is mad or he feigns madness.

iv. Inferential or illative conjunctions

These are conjunctions which express an inference or conclusion. In this list are; for, therefore, since, consequently, so, etc. examples in sentences include;

a) I loved Nancy for she is very brilliant.

b) Maina is poor so he cannot visit Malaika Resort.

c) Gadhafi is my enemy therefore I dislike him.

d) His father died last year consequently; he is facing financial hardships.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These conjunctions join one clause to another, one of the clauses being dependent on (or subordinate to) the main clause to express a full meaning.

Types of subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are divided into seven classes:

i. Those Expressing time-

For example, before, since, when, till, while, etc. eg

a) Mary had left before I spoke to her.

b) I began my lesson after they had left.

c) She promised to wait for him till he comes back.

ii. Those Expressing cause or reason;

They include words such as; because, since, as etc.

a) She was punished because she was late.

b) As she is my sister, I love her

c) Since it is dark, take the torch with you.

iii. Those Expressing purpose

Examples here include;

a) She put the money in a safe place so that it would not be stolen.

b) Strong measures were taken in order that the rule of law be re-established.

c) Eat carefully lest you choke.

d) We eat that we may live.

iv. Those Expressing results or consequence

These conjunctions express or show the end result of some action. They include; so…that, that etc

a) It was so hot that he could not go out.

b) Mwalimu is so weak that he cannot walk.

v. Those Expressing conditions

They include; if, unless, on condition that, provided (that) etc.

a) If she comes here I will talk to her

b) Unless you pay, you won’t go.

c) I will help u on condition that you give up drugs.

d) You can take that book provided you return it by tomorrow.

vi. Those Expressing contrast

For example; although, even if, though, however etc.

a) Although he has a lot of money, he doesn’t spend it.

b) However hard he tried, he failed in the exam.

c) Though he is poor, he is honest

d) I shall not forgive him even if he falls on my knees.

vii. Those Expressing comparison or degree

For example; than, as-as, so-as

a) She respected me more than I thought.

b) He is as healthy as you.

c) He came later than you.

d) He is not as intelligent as he seems.

FUNCTIONS OF CONJUNCTIONS IN SENTENCES

Conjunctions perform different functions in sentences as shown below;

a) To show addition

We use coordinating conjunctions to show addition. For example;

i) Maria and Lucia are sisters.

ii) People work and also attend professional courses.

b) To express alternatives

We use conjunctions to express alternatives or choices. The alternatives can be positive alternatives or negative alternatives. For example;

i) You can take a bus or go by train. (Positive)

ii) Either she is sick or she is pretending. (Positive)

iii) She could neither stand nor walk. (Negative)

iv) He is not a genius nor is he a fool. (Negative)

c) To express concession

Conjunctions can also be used to express concession. Clauses expressing concession present a result that is different from what is expected. For example,

i. Moses is ninety years old, but he plays golf.

ii. Though he woke up late, he got there in time for the meeting.

iii. Ann went to work despite being unwell.

d) To express emphasis

Conjunctions can also be used to show emphasis. For example

i. Not only is he a singer but he is also a talented dancer.

ii. The storm not only destroyed buildings but also killed three people.

iii. Both her mother and her father are pilots.

e) To express condition

Some conjunctions join clauses that express condition. For example;

i. Unless the price of ARVs is lowered, many people will die of AIDS.

ii. Provided that the weather is fine, we shall go for holiday.

iii. You can go out with your friends as long as you come back by six O’clock.

f) To express contrast

Conjunctions can also express contrast. For example; whereas, while,

i. September is a hot month in Mwanza whereas July is cold.

ii. French is taught as an elective subject while English is compulsory for all students.

Exercise

Fill each blank in the following sentence with appropriate

conjunction.

a. Mother paid the butcher _______ put the meat in her basket.

b. The wind is cold _______ it was the month of March.

c. Susan boiled the eggs ______ Jane cut the bread

d. The match was postponed ______ of the heavy rains.

e. We looked everywhere for the lost book ______ could not find it.

f. He visited all his friends ………. he left for America.

g. I haven’t flown a kite………….. I was a little boy.

h. ………… you read you will pass.

i. Is this book yours …….. mine.

j. The students shall fail………… they work hard.

INTERJECTIONS

INTRODUCTION

Interjections are words used to express sudden feelings or emotions. The emotion can be that of joy, anger, grief, surprise, approval, excitement etc.

They are mostly not grammatically related to the other words in the sentence.

They can be one word or a group of words. Examples of one word injections include;

ü Wow!

ü Ugh!

ü Bravo!

ü Wow!

ü Oh!

ü Alas!

ü Ouch!

ü Hey!

ü Hurrah!

Examples of interjection made up of a group of words include;

ü My God!

ü Well done!

ü Good Lord!

ü Holy cow!

ü Good grief!

Assignment: construct sentences using interjections

Examples in a sentence

ü Alas! He is dead.

ü Hurrah! we have won the game.

ü Oh! I got such a fright

ü Hush! Don’t make noise.

ONLINE TUITION

PARTS OF SPEECH

TYPES OF NOUNS

ü PROPER NOUNS

ü COMMON NOUNS

a) Concrete Nouns

b) Abstract Nouns

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

INFLECTION OF NOUNS

1. GENDER

Ø Masculine Gender

Ø Feminine Gender

Ø Neuter Gender

Ø Common Gender

Ø FEMININE NOUN FORMATION

2 NUMBER

Ø FORMATION OF ENGLISH PLURAL NOUNS

Ø FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS IN SENTENCES

· A NOUN AS A SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE

· A NOUN AS A DIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

· A NOUN AS AN INDIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

· A NOUN AS COMPLEMENT OF THE VERB

INTRODUCTION

TYPES OF PRONOUNS

Ø PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Ø DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Ø INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Ø INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Ø REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

Ø RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

Ø NUMERICAL PRONOUNS

Ø RELATIVE PRONOUNS

INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS

INTRODUCTION

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives of Quantity

Adjective of Quality

Adjective of number

Demonstrative adjectives

Possessive adjectives

Interrogative adjectives

Emphatic adjectives

4.3 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES

4.4 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

4.4.1 KINDS OF DEGREES

4.4.1.1Positive Degree

4.4.1.2Comparative Degree

4.4.1.3Superlative degree

4.4.2 FORMATION OF COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

4.5 ORDER OF THE ADJECTIVES

INTRODUCTION

TYPES OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF TIME

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

ADVERBS OF PLACE

ADVERBS OF MANNER

ADVERBS OF DEGREE/QUANTITY

ADVERBS OF CAUSE/ REASON

ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION

FORMATION OF ADVERBS

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

POSITION OF ADVERBS IN SENTENCES

AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE

AT THE MIDDLE OF A SENTENCE

AT THE END OF A SENTENCE

INTRODUCTION

6.2 CONCEPTS EXPRESSED BY PREPOSITIONS

6.2.1 PLACE

6.2.2TIME

6.2.3 MANNER

6.2.4 CAUSE/REASON/ PURPOSE-

6.2.5 POSSESSION

6.2.6 DIRECTION

6.2.7 CONTRAST

6.3 POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS IN SENTENCES

6.3.1 IMMEDIATELY BEFORE A NOUN. FOR EXAMPLE

6.3.2PREPOSITION CAN ALSO BE PLACED IMMEDIATELY AFTER A VERB, OR AN ADJECTIVE

6.3.3PREPOSITION CAN ALSO COME AT THE END OF A SENTENCE ESPECIALLY IN QUESTIONS CONTAINING WORDS SUCH AS: WHO? WHAT? OR WHICH?, IN SOME PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS, AND IN RELATIVE CLAUSES.

6.3.4 PREPOSITIONS ARE PLACED AT THE END OF SENTENCES WHEN THE OBJECT IS A RELATIVE PRONOUN ‘THAT’.

VERBS