PARTS OF SPEECH





In English language, just like in other languages, words are classified into different categories called word classes or parts of speech
This classification is based on the use or on the function(s) they perform in sentences.
Words belonging to the same word class perform the same range of functions.
For example, words which name people, places, and things are called nouns while those which are used to describe actions and states are called verbs.
NB/
  Some words belong to more than one word class.
  For example the word ‘increase’ can be a noun or a verb depending on usage.  E.g.
a) My employer has increased my salary. (Verb)
b) There has been an increase in my salary. (Noun)
 In this unit, we will see how words are classified in English language. The focus will be on the nine word classes namely;
1) Nouns                               
2) Verbs
3) Adverbs
4) Adjective
5) Pronouns
6) Prepositions
7) Conjunctions
8) Articles                                         
9) Interjections
Assignment 1
ü  Research word which belong to more than one word class and give sentences for each case.
ü  Write a sentence showing how  each of the following words is used as indicated in the brackets
·         All(adjectives/adverb/pronoun)
·         After(adverb/preposition/adjective/conjunction)
·         Any(noun/ adjective /pronoun)
·         Before (adverb/preposition/conjunction)
·         Both (adjective /pronoun/conjunction)
·         But (adverb/preposition/conjunction)
·         Down (adverb/preposition /adjective)
1. NOUNS
What is a noun?
Ø  A noun is a word used to name a person, a place, a thing or even a state of being, For example;
ü  Kikwete is a good president. (names a person)
ü  Mwanza is a large city.  ( names a place)
ü  The flower is red. (names a thing)
ü  His courage won him honour. (names a state of being)
NOTE
  1. Person-sister,mayor,coach,child
  2. Place-park,zoo,school,city
  3. Things –book,pen,car
  4. State of being –honesty,truth,democracy,pride,

TYPES OF NOUNS

  There are three major types of nouns. They include;
a)     Proper nouns
b)     Common nouns
c)      Collective nouns

ü  PROPER NOUNS

  A proper noun names or identifies a particular person, place or thing.
A proper noun is also known as a proper name.
·         Examples of proper names of persons include; Mandela, Kikwete, Nyerere etc.
·         Examples of proper names of places include; Mwanza, Tanzania, Musoma, Tarime etc.
NOTE
1.      Sometimes specific names of animals, ships are included under proper nouns e.g. MV Victoria, Titanic.
2.      Some calendar items, for example, date and months are also included under proper nouns e.g. May, June etc.
3.       Historical documents, religions and holy texts are also examples of proper nouns e.g. Bible, Quran, Roman Catholic etc.
NB/ Proper nouns are always written with capital letters at the beginning of each word.

ü  COMMON NOUNS

Ø  A common noun names or identifies any person, place or thing.
Ø  A common noun is a name that applies to objects or persons of the same class or kind, e.g. students, boys, town, country, building.
Ø  Common nouns are divided into two major types;
 a) Concrete Nouns
 b) Abstract Nouns

a) Concrete Nouns

Ø  These are nouns that name physical objects that occupy space and have weight.ie physical things that can be touched, seen, heard e.g. table, rock etc.
Ø  Concrete nouns are further divided into;
1.      Countable nouns
2.      Uncountable nouns
Ø  Countable nouns are the names of objects, and people that we can count e.g. books, pens, apples etc. Countable nouns have plural forms.
Ø  Uncountable nouns are the names of the things that we can’t count e.g. milk, oil, gold, sugar etc.
Ø   They are mainly names of substances and don’t have plural forms e.g. one can’t say oils or sugars.

b) Abstract Nouns

Ø  Abstract nouns are usually names of quality, state or action.
Ø  Examples of abstract nouns of quality include goodness, kindness, darkness, honesty, wisdom etc.
Ø  Abstract nouns of action include nouns such as; laughter, theft, movement, hatred.
Ø  Abstract nouns of state include nouns such as; childhood, boyhood, youth, sleep, sickness, death.
Abstract nouns may be formed from;
a)     Adjective e.g.
Adjective                Noun
 Kind+ -ness……. .kindness
 Good+-ness……. .goodness
 Dark+-ness………darkness
b)    Verbs e.g.
Verb                    Noun
 Obey ………… obedience
 Grow ………….growth.
c)      Other common nouns e.g.
Noun                      Noun
Child…………….. Childhood
Slave…………….. Slavery

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Ø  A collective noun is the name of a collection (or a group) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one unit.
Ø  For example, band, class, family, jury, team, army etc.
Ø  A collective noun is considered singular when it refers to a group as an entire unit and plural when it refers to the individual members within a group.
Ø  They mostly take indefinite article an/a.  Examples of collective nouns include;
 A fleet – a collection of ships or vessels
An army- a collection of solders
A crowd – a collection of people
SUMMARY
COLLECTIVE
PROPER
COMMON
CONCRETE
ABSTRACT
            NOUNS
                                    Countable & Uncountable noun     
A crowd of people
A fleet of ships
A herd of cattle
A flock of sheep
Mango
Table
Woman
House
Book
Wood
Mwanza
Uganda
Nyerere
Kikwete
May
Titanic
Honesty
Love
Corruption
Music
Air

Exercise
1. Identify nouns in the following sentences and state whether they are common (concrete or abstract), proper, or collective.
a)  Mathematics is a useful science
b)  Solomon was famous for his wisdom.
c)  Freedom is our birth-right.
d) The Nile river overflows every September.
e) The girl wrote a letter to mary.
f) The Tanzanian army was won the battle yesterday.
g) A committee of five was appointed.
h) We love honey.
i) Always speak the truth.
2.  Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives;
·         Cruel
·          Strong
·          Deep
·          Poor
·         Ignorant
3.) Form abstract nouns from the following verbs;
           Steal                 Starve                         See
           Beware                        Die                  Free
4.) Form abstract nouns from the following common nouns;
           King                 Friend             Bond
           Man                  Hero               Pirate

INFLECTION OF NOUNS

  Inflection refers to the changes in spelling that a word undergoes to show that it has changes in its grammatical aspects such as tense, mood, aspect, gender etc
       Nouns inflect for
·         Gender
·         Number
·         Case 

1.      GENDER

Gender of nouns is a classification of nouns according to sex of any of the object they represent. English language distinguishes four genders namely;
         i.            Masculine gender
       ii.            Feminine gender
     iii.            Neuter gender
     iv.            Common gender

Ø  Masculine Gender

A noun which denotes a male human being or animal is known as masculine gender e.g. boy, husband, father, cock, stallion etc.

Ø  Feminine Gender

A noun which denotes a female human being or an animal is known as feminine gender e.g. girl, wife, mother, hen, mare etc.

Ø  Neuter Gender

This indicates names of objects without sex, that is, they are neither male nor female. For example fire, air, tree, book, etc.

Ø  Common Gender

This denotes either male or a female gender. It names human beings or animals that may belong to either sex. For example parent, cousin, fish, bird, baby, servant, person, enemy etc.
SOME FACTS ABOUT GENDER
1)     Ships and countries are treated as belonging to the feminine gender.
2)     Objects noted for strength and violence are treated as belonging to the masculine gender e.g. sun, summer, time, death etc.
3)     Objects noted for beauty, grace, gentleness, and admiration are treated as belonging to the feminine gender e.g. moon, spring, autumn, peace, hope etc.

Ø  FEMININE NOUN FORMATION

There are three ways of forming the feminine gender from the masculine gender.. They include:
i) By using an entirely different word, for example;
Boy………………..Girl
Brother……………Sister
Buck………………Doe
Cock………………Hen
Gander……………Goose
ii) By adding an affix (a suffix) to the masculine noun e.g. –ess,-ine,-a
Lion…………………Lioness
Prince……………….Princess
Hero………………...Heroine
Sultan………………Sultana
NOTE
The suffix –ess is the commonest affix used to form the feminine gender from the masculine gender.
iii) By placing a word before or after a masculine noun
           Masculine gender                          Feminine gender
Male……………………..Female
Grandfather……………..Grandmother
Landlord…………………Landlady
Salesman…………………Saleswoman

2 NUMBER

Number in the noun is the form that shows whether reference is made to one object or more than one object. A noun that denotes one person or thing is said to be in singular while a noun that denotes more than one person or thing is said to be in plural.

Ø  FORMATION OF ENGLISH PLURAL NOUNS

1. Most English singular nouns form their plural forms by adding the suffix -s to the singular form for example;
            Cat     +  -s = Cats
Book  +  -s  = Books
            Pen     + -s = Pens
            Cow    + -s = Cows
2. Some nouns ending with –ss,-sh, -ch, or -x form their plural forms by adding the suffix - es , to the singular form for example,
 Class   + -es   = Classes,
 Tax      + -es  = Taxes,
 Brush   + -es  = Brushes,
 Branch + -es  = Branches
Watch   + -es  = Watches
3. Singular nouns that end  in‘-y’ preceded by a consonant generally form their plural forms by changing ‘-y’ to ‘-i’ and then adding the ‘-es’ suffix. 
           Fly     -  Fli     + -es = Flies
Lady  -Ladi  + -es = Ladies
           City    -  Citi    + -es = Cities
           Pony   -  Poni  + -es = Ponies
Army  –Armi + -es = Armies
NB:  If the ‘-y’ is preceded by a vowel, add an ‘-s’ suffix, for example;
Boy  + -s =  Boys
         Day   + -s =  Days
         Key   + -s =  Keys
        Valley + -s = Valleys
4.  Singular nouns ending with letter ‘-o’ preceded by a consonant sound form plural forms by adding ‘-es’ suffix to the singular noun. For example;
Hero    + -es= Heroes
Potato + -es= Potatoes
Negro  + -es= Negroes
Mango + -es= Mangoes
Echo    + -es= Echoes
NB:  There are few nouns however, that end with letter ‘-o’ and merely add the ‘-s’ suffix. Examples include;
Piano + -s = Pianos
Kilo   + -s = Kilos
Solo   + -s = Solos
Photo + -s =  Photos
Log    + -s =  Logs
Ratio  + -s = Ratios
Most of these words have foreign origin hence they don’t follow the rules of English which is the host language.
5. Nouns ending with letters ‘-f’ or ‘-fe’ form their plural forms by changing the ‘-f’/-fe into letter ‘-v’ and then adding ‘-es’
 Examples,
             Thief –Thiev + -es = Thieves         
 Wolf – Wolv +-es = Wolves
 Loaf -  Loav  +-es = Loaves
 Leaf – Leav   + -es= Leaves            
Self  -Selv    + -es= Selves
NB: The nouns dwarf, hoof, and scarf take either the suffix -s or -es in plural
  Dwarf- dwarves/dwarfs
  Hoof – hooves/hoofs
              Scarf – scarves/scarfs
The other exception to the rule includes words such as chief, gulf, safe, proof, handkerchief which add the suffix ‘-s’ to form the plural.
6. A few nouns form their plural by mutation, that is, by changing the inside vowels of the singular noun. For example
  Man……………Men   
  Foot…………....Feet   
  Tooth………….Teeth
  Mouse…………Mice              
7. There are few nouns that form their plural forms by adding the suffix ‘-en’ to the singular e.g.
  Ox…………Oxen                    
  Child……..  Children
8. Some nouns have their singular and plural forms alike –for example, words such as
 Swine………Swine
 Sheep………Sheep
 Deer………..Deer
 Cattle………Cattle
9. Some nouns are only used in the plural e.g. trousers, drawers jeans, shorts, pyramids. 
10. Some nouns look plural but in fact are singular e.g. mathematics, physics, news, measles mumps and rickets.
11. A compound noun generally forms their plural forms by adding the suffix ‘-s’ to the principle words, e.g.
Commander- in –chief…………Commanders- in -chief
Coat –of- mail………………….Coats-of-mail
Son- in law…………………….Sons-in-law
12. Many nouns taken from foreign languages keep their original plural forms. For example,
Index…………….Indices
Radius…………...Radii
Terminus………...Termini
 Formula……........Formulae
Memorandum……Memoranda
Crisis……… Crises                 
Phenomenon……. Phenomena
Basis……….Base        
Criterion…………Criteria
            Madame………..Mesdames
            Monsieur……….Messieurs
Exercise
1. Change the following sentences into plural.
a)     The boy left the biro on the table.
b)     A bird perched on the roof of the house.
c)      The radio and the video are on.
d)     The new dish is on the top shelf.
e)     Harness the ox to the cart.
2. Change the following sentences into singular
a)     Flies carry diseases.
b)     The babies played on the rattles.
c)      The wolves ate the sheep.
d)     The men told the children stories.
e)     The workers loaded the cargo.

Ø  FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS IN SENTENCES  

A noun may serve several functions in a sentence such as:
a)     Subject of the sentence
a)     A direct object of the sentence.
b)     An indirect object of the sentence.
c)      Complement of  stative verbs.

·         A NOUN AS A SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE

A noun functions as the subject of a sentence; when it performs the action implied in the verb or when it is the topic of that verb, or when it is the topic that the predicate talks about. For example;
a)     Mary went to the market.
b)     The river burst its banks due to heavy rains.
c)      Many people are spending their leisure time on the internet.

·         A NOUN AS A DIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

A noun functions as an object when it receives the action implied by the verb. Nouns used as direct objects usually come after the action verbs. To be able to identify the direct object, one should ask the question what or whom after the verb. Examples include;
       a) The lion killed the deer.
               S           V       O

·         A NOUN AS AN INDIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

A noun that functions as an indirect object always comes before the direct object and it cannot stand on its own. It is also possible to add ‘to’ or ‘for’ before the indirect object or change its position in the sentence. For example
1a) Maria bought Juma   a present.
      S    V              IO            DO
1b) Maria bought a present for Juma.
            S          V          DO       IO

·         A NOUN AS COMPLEMENT OF THE VERB

A complement is a word or a phrase that tells us more about the subject. The question ‘how’ can often be asked to find the complement. A noun functions as a complement when it follows a linking verb such as forms of the verb ‘be’ (am, are, was, were, been, being), seems etc. For example,
       a) Vivian is a rich woman.




PRONOUNS

 INTRODUCTION

Ø  A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.
Ø  A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun in order to avoid awckwardness that may occur when there is a repetition of a noun.
Ø  Like nouns, pronouns identify people, places or things (same function as noun). For example;
                        i) Neema is absent, because Neema is ill.
 To avoid repetition of the noun Neema we replace it with the pronoun shei.e.
ii) Neema is absent because she is ill.
In the following sentences the underlined word is a pronoun:
1.      I bought an apple and ate it.
2.      I phoned Jane and invited her to dinner.
3.      You should have asked permission.
4.      Jack told Sally all about herself.
5.      Is anyone there?

TYPES OF PRONOUNS

There are eight different types of pronouns in English language. They include;
a)      Personal Pronoun
b)      Demonstrative Pronouns
c)      Indefinite Pronouns
d)     Relative Pronouns
e)      Interrogative Pronouns
f)       Reflexive Pronouns
g)      Reciprocal Pronouns
h)      Numeral Pronouns

Ø PERSONAL PRONOUNS

These pronouns indicate the identity of a speaker, the person spoken to, and/ or the person spoken about. For example I, me, we, you etc.
FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS
There are three forms of personal pronouns namely;
·         First person
·         Second person
·         Third person
1. First person
This shows the person or persons speaking. First person personal pronoun refers to the person who is speaking or writing when referring to him or herself. Examples include;
                        First person (Masculine or Feminine)
                                    Singular       Plural
Subject of verb            I                     We
Object of verb           Me                    Us
Possessive              Mine                     Ours
2. Second person
This shows the person or persons spoken to. The second person personal pronoun refers to the person or thing that is being addressed in the sentence. Examples include;
                       
                        Second person (Masculine or Feminine)
                                    Singular                      Plural
Subject of verb            You                             You
Object of verb             You                             You
Possessive                   Yours                          Yours
3. Third person
This form shows the person or persons or thing being  spoken of . The third person personal pronoun refers to a third party, not to the speaker or writer of the sentence or to the person being addressed. For example;
                       
Third person (Masculine or Feminine)
                                    Singular                      Plural

                Masculine    Feminine Neuter         All Genders
Subject  He                 She          It                 They
Object   Him               Her           It                Them
Possessive His            Her            Its  Theirs
NB: Take note of the following confusing pairs;
1a) This is my book (possessive adjective)
  b) This book is mine (possessive pronoun)
2a) This is his cat (Possessive Adjective)
  b) This cat is his (possessive pronoun)

Ø DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

These are pronouns that are used to indicate or point out things or people. They have the same form as demonstrative adjectives but these pronouns stand in place of a noun, instead of accompanying a noun.  They include such words as; this, that, these, and those. Examples include;
       a) These are merely excuses. (Pronoun)
       b) Both cars are good: but this is better than that. (Pronouns)
       c)  These are my favorite flowers. (Pronoun)
       e) That is my cousin. (Pronoun)
The demonstrative pronouns this and these are used to refer to something or someone close to the writer or speaker.
The demonstrative pronouns that and those are used to refer to something or someone that is far away from the speaker or writer.

Ø INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

These are pronouns which refer to a person or a thing in a general way without referring to any person or thing in particular. Examples of indefinite pronouns includes words such as; all, any, anybody, anyone, both, each, everybody, none, no one, nothing, somebody, nobody, etc. Examples include;
1)      Somebody has stolen my watch.
2)      Nobody saw the thieves.
3)      Can anybody help her?
4)      Nobody was awake.
5)      Everybody knows at least one other person here.
NB: Indefinite pronouns were traditionally known as distributive pronouns or universal pronouns.

Ø INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Interrogative pronouns are pronouns which are used for asking questions. They include words such as; who, what, whose, whom, which. These among the words sometimes referred to as WH-words because they all begin with the letters ‘wh-‘ the  following are examples in sentences;
1)      What is your name?
2)      Which of the two is better?
3)      Who stole our bike?
4)      Whom did you see?
5)      Whose is the blue car?
NB: ‘who’ is used as the subject of an interrogative sentence, while the object in formal or written English is ‘whom’.
NB:Who’ is used only for persons and is used as the subject of the verb while ‘whom is also used for persons but as the object of the verb. ‘What’ is used for non-human beings. ‘Which’ on the other hand, is used for both persons & things.

Ø REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

They are called reflexive pronouns since the action done by the subject turns back upon the subject, that is, the subject and the object of a sentence are the same person or thing.
Reflexive pronouns end in –self or –selves and refer back to a noun or pronoun that has been mentioned earlier in the sentence. The following is a list of reflexive pronouns in English: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves. For example;
a)      I hurt myself.
b)      He hurt himself.
c)      We hurt ourselves.
d)     You will have to wash yourself in cold water.
e)      Several of the soldiers killed themselves.
Reflexive pronouns are formed when the suffix ‘-self’ is added to my, your, him, her, it, for singular pronouns and ‘-selves’ to our, your, them for the plural pronouns.
When the reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis, they are called emphatic or intensive pronouns. For example;
a)      I will do it myself.
b)      I, myself, saw him do it.
c)      But you, yourself said it is a good idea. (yourself means you and nobody else)
d)     The restaurant, itself, is a pleasant place but the food is horrible.
e)      The town,itself, is not very attractive.

Ø RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns which are used to indicate a two-way relationship or to convey the idea of reciprocity. These pronouns represent two or more persons or things in an interactive manner, that is, they interchange the action denoted by the verb. For example,
a)      They cheated each other.
b)      Sometimes couples lie to one another.
c)      They beat each other/ one another.
d)     The two sisters have hated each other from childhood.
e)      The family members blame one another for their mother’s death.

Ø NUMERICAL PRONOUNS

These pronouns cite numbers which could be cardinal or ordinal. Cardinal numbers include one, two, three, etc. while ordinal numbers includes first, second, third etc.
They qualify as pronouns when they take the place of a noun of a sentence. For example;
a)      The opposing team cut him off as one of the members.
b)      She came third in the exams.

Ø RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns are pronouns that introduce a relative clause. If a word relates two statements about the same person or thing, we call it a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun is used to introduce a subordinate clause. These are pronouns that refer to or that relate to same nouns mentioned before them. Examples include such words as; who, whose, whom, which, and that.
1a) I met Gerald. Gerald had just returned.
  b) I met Gerald who had just returned.
2a) I found the pen. I had lost the pen.
  b) I found the pen which I had lost.
From the above examples, it is clear that relative pronouns act as pronouns and connective device at the same time. They also act as subject or objects in the subordinate part of sentences, while as connectives, they join the subordinate to the main clause.
          3) The American who became president is Obama..
NB: To avoid ambiguity in sentences, place the relative pronoun as near as possible to the noun it relates.
Uses of relative pronouns
1.         Who – used for persons in subject position -The boy who was crying is my brother.
2.         Whom – used for persons in object position   -She is the woman whom I chose to marry.
3.         Which and that – used for things without life            -This is the gift which I chose for you.                       Or-Take anything that you like.
4.         Whose – used to show possession      -The man whose car was stolen is crying.
5.         Where – shows place                          -This is where I lost my wallet.

INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS

Pronouns usually inflect for
·         Person,
·         Gender,
·          Number
·         Case.
The above can be summarized as follows;
CASE             PERSON AND NUMBER
                               First person (Common Gender)
                                    Singular                      Plural
Nominative (subject)               I                                   We
Accusative (object)                 Me                               Us
Genitive (possession)              Mine                Ours
                       
                        Second person (Common Gender)
                                    Singular                      Plural
Nominative (subject)               You                             You
Accusative (object)                 You                             You
Genitive (possession)              Yours              Yours
Third person (Common Gender)
                                    Singular                      Plural
                        Masculine    FeminineNeuter  All Genders
Nominative (subject) He                     She           It                They
Accusative (object)   Him                   Her           It                Them
Genitive (possession)His                     Her           Its              Theirs
NB: The pronouns I, we, me, us, you, your, they, them, theirs are said to have common gender since they can refer to either male or a female.
                                        
Exercise1
1. Complete these sentences with the correct personal pronoun.
  1. I remembered the English book but Mary  forgot--------------
  2. That dog barks all night. _____________ is a nuisance
  3. That is Stella. ___she______ is my sister.
  1. The Titanic was a new ship_____that__ People thought would never sink but __it___did.
  2. This is my brother. ___he______ is taller than___me_______.
2. Choose the correct pronoun(s) for each sentence.
      1. She/her went to the market.
      2.  It was she/her.
      3.  I talked to he/him.
      4.  Can you come with we/us?
      5. If you were I/me, would you accept the job?
3. Fill the blanks with suitable relative pronouns.
  1. People love boys ______who___respect their parents.
  2. I don’t know _______what__________ he wants.
  3. He ______who_______ does his best shall be praised.
  4. It is an ill wind ____that/which________ blows no body good.
  5. No man canlose_____what_______ he never had.
   4. Join together each of the following pairs of sentences using an appropriate relative pronoun.
  1. I know Moses .The man has been to Iceland
  2. The thief stole a watch .The thief was punished.
  3. I met the boy. He was very cruel.
  4. Here is the pencil. You lost it yesterday.
  5. Here is the book. You were asking for the book.
5. Identify the pronoun and state its type
1.         Many of the streets were crowded. (indefinite)
2.         He cut himself with a kitchen knife. (personal-2ndperson,reflexive)
3.         This looks better with your blue suit. (demonstrative)
4.         We ,ourselves decorated the rooms.(personal-1st person,reflexive)
5.         The record that John bought was original. (relative)
6.         Passengers were asked to return to their seats. (No pronoun)
7.         The girl who won the award is my neighbour.(relative)
8.         Only one of the answers was correct. (numerical)
9.         He deserves what he got.(personal-3rd person, relative)
10.       All the children brought their own lunch.(indefinate)
6. Choose the suitable personal pronoun
1.         Either you or     ---- -------- (they, them)  will win the prize.
2.         On the table were letters of John and (he,him).
3.         They play tennis better than (we, us).
4.         Between you and (I, me), Jane is likely to win.
5.         She told us and (they, them) to work together.
6.         (She, her) and I were rewarded for the work.
7.         My sister acts on impulse more than (I, me).
8.         The winner of the contest was (she, her).
9.         She forgot (her, hers) book at the library.
10.       This land is (their, theirs).






ADJECTIVES

INTRODUCTION

An adjective is a word that describes or gives more information about a noun or a pronoun. An adjective is said to qualify a noun or a pronoun because it limits the word it describes in some way by making it more specific. An adjective usually comes before the word it describes. For example;
1.      Old man
2.      That house
3.      Two cows
4.      Red book
5.      Tiny dog
An adjective may, however, come after the form of the verb ‘be’, or ‘stative, verbs, for example,
a)      The speech was boring.
b)      The food is delicious.
c)      The weather is hot.
d)     The weather seems cold.
e)      The food feels hot.
Adjectives usually tell us something about the colour, size, quantity, quality or classification of a noun or pronoun. In the following sentences the underlined words are adjectives:
1.      She wore a white dress.
2.      It was a huge dog.
3.      They had five children.
4.      They were sad people.
5.      It was a Victorian house.

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES

The following are the types of adjectives based on their meanings:

Adjectives of Quantity

These adjectives show how much of a thing is meant. They answer to the questions how much of a thing? For example,
a)      I ate some rice.
b)      He was little intelligence.
c)      You have no sense.
d)     He paid the whole some as expected.
e)      She ate half of her meal.

Adjective of Quality

These adjectives are also called descriptive adjective and they shows the kind or quality of a person or thing. For example,
a)      Mwanza is a large city.
b)      Goodluck is an honest man.
c)      The foolish old man tried to steal.
d)     Amina is in sound health.
e)      I had a pleasant journey.
Adjectives of quality answer the question; of what kind or what sort of a person or thing.

Adjective of number

These adjectives are also called numeral or limiting adjectives and they show how many persons or things are meant. For example;
a) The hand has five fingers.
b) I have taught many things today.
c) Sunday is the first day of the week.
d) All men must die.
e) Most boys like football.
Adjectives of number answer the question how many?

Demonstrative adjectives

These adjectives points out which person or thing is meant. For example
a) This boy is strong than Martin.
b) That boy is stronger than Charles.
c) Those mangoes are sour.
d) I hate such things.
Demonstrative adjectives answer the question which?

Possessive adjectives

These adjectives show possession and also modify the meaning of the noun they accompany. For example,
 a) My house is near the hill.
b) Her dad was taken ill yesterday.
c) Its tail is broken.
d) Our desk is not here.
f) His pen has been stolen.

Interrogative adjectives

These are adjectives used with the nouns to ask questions. English language has three interrogative adjectives.  They are; which, whose, and what. For example,
a.       Whose pen did Mosses use?
b.      Which way shall we go?
c.       What book will Catherine use to teach?

Emphatic adjectives

Emphatic adjectives are adjectives which you place in front of a noun to emphasize your feelings about something or to emphasize the degree of something, as absolute, pure etc.
ü  The play was an utter disaster.
ü  It was pure magic
ü  He is an utter idiot.
ü  She is a complete fool.
ü  The campaign was a total failure.
Exercise 1
Identify the adjective in the following sentences and state whether they are adjectives of quality / quantity/number/ or demonstrative.
1.      These pens were bought yesterday. (demonstrative)
2.      I need that list by noon.(demonstrative)
3.      Thirty exercise books were on the teacher’s desk.(number)
4.      Which dog bit the man?(interrogative)
5.      Every cloud has its silver lining.(limiting)
6.      My father lives in Dodoma.(possesive)
7.      He died a glorious death(quality)
8. She comes here every day.(limiting)

4.3 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES

a) Many adjectives are formed from nouns using suffixes;
            Noun               Adjective
            Nation             national
            Option             optional
            Hope               hopeful
            Mercy  merciful
            Hope               hopeless
            Child              childless
            Friend              friendly
            Time                timely
b) Some adjectives are formed from verbs by use of suffixes such as; -able, -ive, -less etc.
Verb               Adjective
Break               breakable
Remark            remarkable
Act                  active
React               reactive
Tire                  tireless
Move               movable
d) Some adjectives are formed from other adjectives. For example;
Adjective        Adjective
Tragic  tragical
Three               threefold
Black               blackish
White              whitish
Sick                 sickly
Exercise 2
1 Form adjectives from the following nouns
·         TimelyHealthly
·         Easly      Boyish
·         PardonableOutrageous
2. Form adjective from the following verbs;
·         Like(able)Suit(able)        
·         Please(able)Create(ive)        
·          Explore- exploratory
3. Form adjective from the following adjectives
           Whole/some/sale/hearted/meal
           White-whitish
           Black-blackish

4.4 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Some adjectives can change in form to show comparison. For example,
             Tall-taller-tallest
These varying forms are called degrees of comparison tall being positive degree, taller comparative degree and tallest being superlative degree.
NB Absolute adjectives, for example, round, square etc. are not capable of realistic comparison.

4.4.1 KINDS OF DEGREES

4.4.1.1Positive Degree

This is the base form of the adjective that is used to describe one person, place or thing without reference to any other .e.g.
i.        A large room  
ii.      A wide selection                     
iii.    A heavy load              
iv.    A good student

4.4.1.2Comparative Degree

This is used to compare two people, places, ideas, quantities or things of the same kind or class. The comparative degree marker is –erfor regular adjectives or the word more for irregular adjectives. The comparative degree is usually followed by the word than e.g.
a)      She is older than I.
b)      She is more beautiful than I.

4.4.1.3Superlative degree

This degree shows the highest degree of a quantity and is used when one object is compared with all other things of the same class.ie comparison of more than two things of the same class. The morpheme –estfor regular adjectives or the word most for irregular adjectives.
The article ‘the’ must always come before the superlative form of the adjective.  Examples
 a) She is the oldest of all.
 b) He is thefastest of them all.

4.4.2 FORMATION OF COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

1. Most adjectives of one syllable form the comparative degree by adding ‘-er’ and the superlative by adding ‘-est’ to the positive degree. For example;
Positive        Comparative     Superlative    
New                newer              newest
Rich                 richer               richest
Old                  older    oldest
Black               blacker            blackest
Long                longer              longest
2. If the positive degree ends in the letters ‘-e’ only the suffixes ‘-r’ and ‘-st’ are added to form their comparatives and superlatives respectively. For example;
Positive        Comparative     Superlative
            Brave,              braver              bravest
Fine                 finer                 finest,
Large               larger               largest
Late                 later                 latest
3. If the positive degree ends in letter ‘-y’ preceded by a consonant sound, then the letter ‘-y’ changes to ‘-i’ while adding the suffixes -er or -est. For example;
Positive             Comparative      Superlative
Busy                      busier               busiest
Dry                        drier                 driest
Easy                      easier               easiest
Heavy                    heavier             heaviest
Noisy                     noisier              noisiest
4. If the positive ends in letter ‘-y’ preceded by a vowel, then the letter ‘-y’ doesn’t change while adding the suffixes ‘-er’ or ‘-est’. For example,
Positive        Comparative           Superlative
 Gay                      gayer               gayest
 Grey                     greyer              greyest
5. If the positive degree ends in one consonant preceded by a short vowel, then the final consonant    is doubled while adding the suffixes ‘-er’ or ‘-est’ . For example,
 Positive      Comparative            Superlative
 Big                    bigger                 biggest
 Fat               fatter      fattest
Hot                     hotter                  hottest
Mad              madder               maddest
Red                    redder                 reddest
6. All adjectives of more than two syllables and some of two syllables also form their comparatives by adding more and superlatives by adding most before the positive degree. For example,
 Positive          Comparative              Superlative
Beautiful         more beautiful most beautiful
Courageous     more courageous         most courageous
Difficult                      more difficult              most difficult
Proper   more proper               most proper
Useful                         more useful                 most useful
7. Some adjective are compared irregularly i.e. they change to different forms when comparatives   and superlatives are formed. For example;
Positive        Comparative     Superlative
Bad           worse               worst              
Good         better               best     
Evil            worse               worst  
Hind          hinder              hindmost
Far farther farthest           
 Bad           worse        worst
NB
  1. Double comparatives and superlatives are not used e.g.
*a) This book is more better than that.
*b) This book is more best of all.
  1. When two qualities of the same person or thing are compared, the comparative must be formed by using ‘more’ with the positive not ‘er’. For example,
c) He is more honest than industrious
  1. The positive and the superlative degrees cannot be mixed up in the sentences. For example;
*d) Lucy is the best and wise of all the girls.
4. There are a number of adjectives that make their comparative forms with either ‘-er’ or more       and their superlative forms with - est or most. For example;
Positive                  Comparative       superlative                                        
Pretty                      prettier/more pretty               prettiest/ most pretty
Fierce              fiercer/more fierce     fiercest/most fierce
Exercise 3
1) Write the comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives.
·         Black(more/most)
·         Evil(worse/worst)
·         Mad (madder/maddest)
·         Far(farther /farthest)
·         In(inner/innermost)
·         Out(outter/utter outmost/uttermost)
·         Perfect(same)
·         Universal(same)

4.5 ORDER OF THE ADJECTIVES

The preferred order of adjective in a sentence is based on whether the adjectives are either opinion or fact adjectives.
Opinion adjectives give an opinion on something or somebody e.g. wise, nice, beautiful etc. Different people hold different opinions.
Fact adjectives on the other hand give us factual information that is not debatable about the noun e.g. British, small, wooden, digital etc. When we use an opinion and a fact adjective together in a sentences opinion adjectives come before fact adjectives i.e. fact adjectives are closer to nouns. For example,
            a) A beautiful, round table not *A round, beautiful table.
            b) A lovely, long hair not * A long, lovely hair.
Sometimes we use more than one fact adjectives in a sentence. In this case, the following order is preferred;
Size/shape
Age
Color
Origin
Make
How big? short, huge
How old? young, new, old
Of what color? Green, blue, red
Where from? Kenyan, Japanese
What is it made of? Leather, wooden, woolen
For example;
1) She bought a huge, old, yellow, Japanese, wooden bed.
            Size   Age  Color     Origin     Make
Exercise 4
Fill in the blanks with the correct order of the adjectives in the brackets
  1. Mine is the------------------------- handbag(blue, leather, small)(small blue letha)
  2. I live in a ---------------------------- house (furnished, old, large)(large,old,furn)
  3. East Africa has ----------------- force (combined military, powerful)(powa,comb,mila)
  4. There is a --------------- rug in the room ((soft, wonderful, woolen )(wonda,soft,wooln)
  5. I have just finished reading  a------------- novel (long, American, boring)bori,long,ame
  6. She has a ------ clock ( useful, alarm, digital)(useful,digital.alarm)

ADVERBS

INTRODUCTION

Ø An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Ø  An adverb answers the questions how? When? Where? and to what extent? something is or was done. Examine the following examples;
a)    The dog followed Jane everywhere. (modifies a verb)
b)    Martin is fairly handsome. (modifies an adjective)
c)    I have been to Mwanza twice now. (modifies an adverb)
Ø Sometimes adverbs modify phrases, for example;
a) Gerald was truly in love.
b) Martin cried loudly the whole night.
Ø Occasionally, an adverb may modify the whole sentence, for example;
a) Unfortunately, this has happened.
b) Perhaps she is ill.
c) Truly, he is a rogue.

TYPES OF ADVERBS

Ø Adverbs may be divided into the following classes, according their functions within the sentences they occur.

 ADVERBS OF TIME

Ø Adverbs of time tell us when an action took place.
Ø They include such words as; today, yesterday, tomorrow, now, then before, late, early etc. For example,
1.     I have heard this before/ now/ lately.
2.     He arrived late.
3.     The end soon came.
4.     I hurt my knee yesterday.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

Ø These adverbs tell us about the frequency of an action, that is, how often, or frequently it takes place.
Ø  They include words such as; once, often, frequently, seldom, always etc. For example;
a)    I have seen you twice.
b)    He often makes mistakes.
c)     Mary called in again.
d)    He always tries to do his best.

ADVERBS OF PLACE

Ø Adverbs of place tell us where an action took place.
Ø They also tell us where something or somebody is.
Ø  This group includes such words as; here, there, inside, outside, eastwards etc. For example,
a) She left the ball here.
b) They went South to look for jobs.
c) What were you doing here?
d) They were traveling west.

ADVERBS OF MANNER

Ø Adverbs of manner tell us how the action of a verb took place or was done.
Ø This group includes such words as; slowly, quietly, quickly etc. for example,
a) Don’t walk too fast, I can’t keep up.
b) Mary reads clearly.
c) The warrior fought bravely.
d) The child slept soundly.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE/QUANTITY

Ø These adverbs show how much or to what degree or to what extent an adjective is.
Ø Notice that they modify adjectives.
Ø Examples include such words as; enough, too, so, completely, altogether, quite, rather, etc.
a)    The mangoes are almost ripe.
b)    I am rather busy today.
c)     The new business is fairly successful.
d)    Martin is far more polite than his brother.

ADVERBS OF CAUSE/ REASON

Ø These are adverbs that relate to the cause or reason for an action.
Ø Examples include such words as; hence, therefore etc. for example,
a)     He is hence unable to refute the charges.
b)    I therefore resigned and started looking for a new job

ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION

Ø These adverbs underline the affirmative or negative meaning of sentences, phrases or clauses.
Ø For example,
a)    Surely he won’t be sent to prison.
b)    She certainly sings beautifully.
c)     I will not allow you to go with him.
NB: An adverb may belong to different classes depending on the context in which it is used. For example,
1a) Don’t go far from here. (Adverb of place)
  b) Wawira is far clever than she looks. (Adverb of degree)
2a) Mercy sings delightfully. (Adverb of manner)
  b) The weather is delightfully cool. (Adverb of degree)
Exercises 1
 Underline the adverbs in the following sentences and state their types.
a)    The car drove swiftly down the hill. manner
b)    You are completely mistaken. Affirmative
c)     Have you been here before?place/time
d)    John and I meet quite often.(degree/frequency
e)     They all moved forward. place
f)      Try again. frequency
g)    Where is Abdul? place
h)    The son is out in Iran. place
i)       Why are you that late? Int adv of reason

FORMATION OF ADVERBS

Ø Some adverbs are formed from nouns by use of suffixes for example -wise, -ward .
Noun                         Adverb
Length                  Lengthwise
Clock                   Clockwise
Other                   Otherwise
Up                          Upwards
Back                      Backwards
Down                    Downwards
Ø Many adverbs, especially the adverbs of manner, can be formed from adjectives by adding the suffix –ly.
Adjective         Adverb
Wise                     wisely                  
Quick                   quickly
Bad                      badly
Wise                     wisely
Sad                       sadly
Ø When the adjectives ends in letter ‘-y’ preceded by a consonant, then the letter ‘y’ changes to ‘-i’ before adding the suffix ‘-ly’. For example;
Happy- happily
Ready         Readily
Heavy         Heavily
Ø Some adverbs are made up of adjective + noun. For example;
Adjective     Noun           Adverb
Mid                   way                Midway
Short                hand               Shorthand
Side                  ways               Sideways
Some                 times               Sometimes
Mean                           while             Meanwhile
Ø Some adverbs are made up of preposition + noun. For example;
           Preposition     Noun                    Adverb
Over                   board                    overboard
Off                      guard                     off-guard
 In                       side                         inside
 By                      pass                         bypass
 Up                       hill                          uphill
 On                      line                          online

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Ø Some adverbs, like adjectives have three degrees of comparison i.e. positive, comparative and superlative while some other adverbs cannot be compared.
Ø For example, adverbs such as here, there, then, now, always etc .cannot be compared.
1)    Some adverbs form their comparative degree by adding the suffix -er and superlative degree by adding -est to the positive degree.
Positive        Comparative      Superlative
Hard           harder                           hardest
Soon           sooner                           soonest
Early          earlier                            earliest      
High           higher                            highest
2)    Other adverbs form their comparative degrees by adding the word more and superlatives by adding the word most before the positive degree.
                                                                       
Positive         Comparative               Superlative
Quickly      more quickly                 most quickly
Easily                   more easily          most easily
Loudly        more loudly                   most loudly
Happily       more happily                 most happily
3)    Some adverbs have irregular comparatives and superlatives forms. For example;
Positive        Comparative      Superlative
Badly/ill           worse                worst
Well                  better             best
Much                more              most
Little                  less                least

POSITION OF ADVERBS IN SENTENCES

There are three main positions for adverbs in sentences;

AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE

a)    Tomorrow we shall meet at the chief’s camp.
b)    Perhaps Mary should pursue a master degree before getting married.

AT THE MIDDLE OF A SENTENCE

a)    I was very hungry by lunch time.
b)    Our teacher rarely comes to class late.

AT THE END OF A SENTENCE

a)    I will meet you there.
b)    My motto is work hard.
c)     The church is cleaned daily.
Exercise 2
1. Put the comparative form of the adverbs in brackets in the spaces provided.
1.     Jane works--------- than her sister and brother. (hard)er
2.     She sings---- than anyone else in class. (beautifully)more
3.     King Solomon is said to have ruled ------ than any other king before or after him. (wisely) more
2. Use superlative forms of the adverbs in brackets to fill in the blanks.
a)    He who runs-------------wins the race. (fast)est
b)    She is the ----------------intelligent girl in her class. (much)most
c)      Who arrived ----------- at school this morning? (early)earliest






PREPOSITIONS

 INTRODUCTION

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show how it relates with some other nouns within a sentence. For example;
  1. I put my bag on the table.
  2. The goat is in the field.
If the prepositions ‘in’ and ‘on’ are left out the above sentences, they would not have clear or specific meanings. For example, in sentence (1) above, the bag could be on the table, under the table, or besides the table and the meaning is made clearer when the preposition is included.
6.1 Types of Prepositions
Prepositions can be divided into two major groups, namely;
6.1.1 Simple prepositions
These are one word prepositions, such as;out, in, after, off, down, past, etc. for example;
1) Maryanne is at the airport.
2) Tanzania is praised for her beauty.
3) Edward received a letter from his mother.
4) The president talked on corruption.
5) He is fond of poetry.
6.1.2 Complex prepositions
 These are preposition which contain two or more words e.g. according to, with effect from, out of, in the event of, in spite of, opposite to, exclusive of etc. For example;
1) A word used instead of a noun is called a pronoun.
2) He came out of the house.
3) The wedding was cancelled due to lack of venue.
4) I stay away from home.
5) We increase our knowledge by means of books.

6.2 CONCEPTS EXPRESSED BY PREPOSITIONS

6.2.1 PLACE

These prepositions tell us where a person or thing is in relation to another, e.g.
a)      The cups are above the shelf.
b)      Maria is at the cafeteria.
c)      The water is in the drum.
d)     The seat is along the wall.

6.2.2TIME

 These prepositions are used to express time or to refer to a specified duration of time. For example,
a)      The doctor arrived at noon.
b)      The film ends at 1600hrs.
c)      You must return before evening.
d)     I worked in the bank for six years.
e)      Janet taught the class till 4pm.
NOTE:
At in the above sentences is used to refer to a specific time.
The preposition in is used to express a specified duration of time. For example,
a)      Martin was born in July.
b)      The schools will open in two weeks’ time.
c)      The building will be complete in six months.
The preposition on is mostly used to indicate days and dates for example;
a)      The exams start on Friday.
b)      The conference will start on 10th July, 2010.

6.2.3 MANNER

These are prepositions that  show the way someone did something. Examples include;
a)      Juma fought with courage.
b)      Gerald worked with earnest.
c)      He missed death by inches.
d)     I earn money by teaching.

6.2.4 CAUSE/REASON/ PURPOSE-

These prepositions indicate the reason why something happened or why someone did something. Examples include;
a)      He labored for a good reason.
b)   Education is meant for character formation.
c)   She died of heart attack.
d)  Mushi lost the purse through negligence.
e)  Moses shivered with fever.

6.2.5 POSSESSION

These prepositions show ownership between two nouns i.e. something belonging to someone. Examples include;
a)      She loved the girl with blue eyes.
b)      Catherine is a lady of noble character.
c)      Dodoma is the capital of Tanzania.
d)     Crispin is a man of means.

6.2.6 DIRECTION

  Prepositions of direction show the direction towards or from which someone or something moves, for example;
a)      He walked into the class.
b)      Mary ran towards the police station.
c)      The moon moves round the earth.
d)     The bus moved down the hill.

6.2.7 CONTRAST

 These prepositions mark contrast between two clauses in a complex sentence. Examples include;
       a) For his faults I admire him.
b) In spite of all her wealth, she is not contented.
c) For one enemy, he has hundred friends
d) Not withstanding my efforts, I failed in the exams.

 

6.3 POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS IN SENTENCES

Prepositions can be placed:

6.3.1 IMMEDIATELY BEFORE A NOUN. FOR EXAMPLE

a)      He went to school.
b)      They traveled by bus.
c)      Mary is resting in bed.

6.3.2PREPOSITION CAN ALSO BE PLACED IMMEDIATELY AFTER A VERB, OR AN ADJECTIVE

a)      The nurse attended to the patient. (after a verb)
b)      I do believe in a higher being. (after a verb)
c)      Most people are afraid of darkness. (after an  adjective)
d)     It was kind of you to invite me to you party. (after an adjective)

6.3.3PREPOSITION CAN ALSO COME AT THE END OF A SENTENCE ESPECIALLY IN QUESTIONS CONTAINING WORDS SUCH AS: WHO? WHAT? OR WHICH?, IN SOME PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS, AND IN RELATIVE CLAUSES.

a)      Who does she live with?
b)      Which box is the book in?
c)      All feasible ideas were brought in. (passive)
d)     I don’t know where they are going to. (relative clauses)
e)      What are you talking about?

6.3.4 PREPOSITIONS ARE PLACED AT THE END OF SENTENCES WHEN THE OBJECT IS A RELATIVE PRONOUN ‘THAT’.

a)      It is the train that I am waiting for.
b)      This is the resort that I spent in
c)      This is the novel that I have been talking about.
Exercise
Insert the correct preposition in the following
1.      We should not rely_____ somebody.
2.      His uncle died ______ lung-cancer
3.      Why are you so jealous ____ your brother
4.      I don’t like to part _____ my book.
5.      The man is guilty____ his lying
6.      I am senior ____him in service
7.      Have you any comment____ this proposal.
8.      Woolen clothes are not appropriate____a hot summer day.
9.      She is proud ____her new car
10.  Distribute the books_____those two  children 

VERBS

WHAT IS A VERB?

A verb is a word that is used to express or describe an activity, a feeling or an experience.
Put in other words, a verb is a word that is used to describe an action, whether active or passive.
A verb tells us what someone is or was doing and a verb can tell us about being (state of being) or even possession. For example;
          1. Anna exercises daily. (The verb ‘exercises’ expresses an activity)
          2. President Kikwete is a humble person. (The verb ‘is’ expresses a state of being)
          3. Vicky feels sad. (The verb ‘feel’´ expresses a feeling)
          4. Maria has blue eyes (The verb ‘has’´ expresses possession)

PRINCIPLE PARTS OF A VERB

Generally each verb has three principle parts namely:
1.Present
2.The past
3.The past participle
These principle parts are used to show time in a sentence and they occur in two forms of a verb i.e. the regular and the irregular form.

 

TYPES OF VERBS

Verbs are classified into various types by use of various parameters, they include:
i)               tense formation
ii)          Number of objects following the verb
iii)     whether they are main verbs or helping verbs
iv)       Whether they are action verbs or stative verbs
 

1. TENSE FORMATION

Here verbs are classified based on whether a verb takes on the suffix ‘–ed’ /-d or not to form its past simple and past participle tenses. Under this criterion, verbs are classified into;
       1. Regular Verbs
       2. Irregular verbs

a. Regular Verbs

Regular verbs form their simple past tense and past participle forms through the addition of the suffix ‘–ed’ or ‘-d’. For example,
Verb      Simple past tense      Past participle                
Jump        Jumped                        Jumped
Dazzle       dazzled                      dazzled
Walk           walked                     Walked
Laugh               Laughed                       Laughed
Arrive                   arrived                    arrived
NB
ü      If a one-syllable verb ends in a single vowel and a consonant, we double the final consonant then we add  the suffix ‘–ed/-d’. For example,
Stop……… stopped
Hop………..hopped
Fit………….fitted
Hug………..hugged
Tap………...tapped
Pat…………patted
Exceptions: We never double the letter –w,-x,-y as shown below;
Bow……….bowed
Fix…………fixed
Play………..played
If a one-syllable verb already ends in –e, we just add the suffix ‘–d’. This is shown below;
Hope………hope
Stare………stared
  
If a one-syllable verb ends in two vowels and a consonant, we do not double the final consonant.
Steer……..steered
Peer………peered
Fear………feared
Pour………poured
If a verb has more than one syllable and ends in a single vowel and a consonant, we usually double the final consonant if the last syllable is stressed.
Admit………admitted
Prefer……….preferred
Occur……….occurred
But;   
Offer………..offered
Open………..opened
Happen……..happened
                  Visit………..visited
Tamper……..tampered
NB: Even though the last syllable is not stressed, we always double the letter ‘–l’ when adding the suffix ‘-ed/-d’ to words ending in one vowel and ‘–l’.
Travel……..travelled
Control……controlled
If a verb ends in a consonant, -y, we change the letter -y to -i when we add the suffix ‘–ed/-d’.
Try………..tried
Cry……….cried
Carry……..carried
Hurry…….hurried
If a verb ends in the letters ‘–ic’, we add letter ‘-k’ before the suffix ‘–ed/-d’.
Picnic……picnicked
Panic…….panicked

b. Irregular Verbs

As the name suggests, irregular verbs have no pattern /formulae in past tense or past participle tense formation. Some irregular verbs change in various forms while some do not change at all.
Some one-syllable verbs do not have a separate past form. The verb remains the same in the past as it is in the present as the following examples show;
Set…………..set
Bet………….bet
Bid………….bid
Cast…………cast
Burst………...burst
The majority of irregular verbs can be broken down into particular groups with their own pattern(s).  This is demonstrated below;
Present tense form
Simple past tense
Past participle form
Cling
Clung
Clung
Fling
Flung
Flung
Sting
Stung
Stung
Swing
Swung
Swung
Wring
Wrung
Wrung
Present tense form
Simple past tense form
Past participle form
Drink
Drank
Drunk
Ring
Rang
Rung
Sing
Sang
Sung
Spring
Sprang
Sprung
Stink
Stank
Stunk
Present form
Past simple form
Past participle form
Bleed
Bled
Bled
Breed
Bred
Bred
Feed
Fed
Fed
Flee
Fled
Fled
Lead
Led
Led
Present form
Past simple form
Past participle form
Pay
Paid
Paid
Lay
Laid
Laid
Say
Said
Said
.
Present form
Past simple form
Past participle form
Catch
Caught
Caught
Teach
Taught
Taught
Present form
Past simple form
Past participle form
Bring
brought
Brought
Buy
Bought
Bought
Fight
Fought
Fought
Seek
Sought
Sought
Think
Thought
Thought
Present form
Past simple form
Past participle form
Bind
Bound
Bound
Find
Found
Found
Grind
Ground
Ground
Wind
Wound
Wound
Present form
Past simple form
Past participle form
Draw
Drew
Drawn
Know
Knew
Known
Throw
Threw
Thrown

 

INFLECTIONS OF VERBS

Inflection refers to the process by which affixes are attached to words or stems so as to mark various grammatical categories.
English verbs typically inflect for tense, voice, aspect and mood and to a lesser degree person. This module will only concern itself with tense and voice. Students are advised to read the others from relevant books.

1. TENSE

Tense is a form which a verb takes to show the time of action and its degree of completeness. There are three types of tenses namely:
1.Present tense
2.Past tense
3.Future tense
Each of the above tenses can be further divided into four parts to show the degree of completeness of an action.

ü     Present tense

Present tense is the tense that expresses activities that happen concurrently with the time of speaking or writing. It can be divided into four parts namely; present simple, present continuous, present perfect, and present perfect continuous.
 a) Present simple tense
Present simple tense expresses activities, actions or events taking place at the moment of speaking.
ü      He reads a book.
ü      I read a book.
ü      Musa reads a book.
Uses of the present simple tense
The present simple tense is used to;
ü   To express habitual actions; as
·     Alex yawns when bored.
ü   To express general truths ; as
·     The sun rises in the east.
ü   To discuss hobbies; as
·     Edgar plays computer games during his free time.
ü   To show the condition in which a person or object is in; as
·     The weather is/seems cloudy/sunny.
ü   To state a person’s occupation
·     Gerald is a lecturer.
ü   To indicate a relationship
·     Omutiti and Ocham are business partners.
Rule of formation: Subject+ Verb+ Object
NB: one is supposed to add –s to the form of the verb with subject he, she, it and proper nouns (third person singular).
 b) Present Continuous tense
 Present continuous tense is used to show an action that is in progress and is incomplete at the moment of speaking or writing. For example;
ü      I am reading the book.
ü      He is eating matoke.
Uses of the present continuous tense
The present continuous tense is used to;
ü   To express an action going on at the time of speaking;
·     The boys are trapping birds by the river.
ü   To express the future in arrangements that have already been made;
·     I am going to visit Dodoma next week
Rule of formation: Subject+ is/am/ are+ Verb+ -ing (Object)
c) Present Perfect tense
This tense is used to express acts that have just been completed in the immediate past but their effects/ impacts can still be felt at the time of speaking. For example;
ü      I have read the book.
ü      He has eaten matoke.
Uses of the present perfect
The present perfect tense is used to;
ü   To indicate activities which were completed in the immediate past.
·     He has just gone home.
ü   To describe past events whose effects are felt in the present.
·     I have cut my finger and it is bleeding now.
Rule of formation: Subject + has/ have Verb + past participle+ Object
d) Present Perfect Continuous
This tense is used to express activities which began in the past but is still going on. For example
ü   John has been playing football for two hours.
The above sentence means that John is playing now and he started two hours ago and still going on.
Uses of the present perfect continuous tense
Present Perfect continuous is used
ü   For an action which began at sometime in the past and is still going on
  I have been learning Spanish since last year (I am still learning)
Rule of formation Subject: + has/ have + been + Verb + -ing (Object)

ü     Past tense

Past tense is used to indicate an action completed sometime prior(before) to the time of speaking. It can be divided into four parts namely; simple past, past continuous, past perfect, and past perfect continuous.
a) Simple Past Tense
This expresses actions that took place sometimes in the past. For example;
ü      Mary ate a meal.
ü      I lost my book.
Uses of the past simple tense
The simple past tense is used to;
ü   Indicate a completed action in the past.
·     Joshua passed his national exams with flying colors.
ü   To express past habits.
·     He always carried a bible.
Rule of formation Subject +Verb (past) + (Object)
b) Past Continuous Tense
This tense is used to show actions, activities or events going on for some time in the past. For example;
ü      They were reading the book.
                                                                     
Uses of the past continuous tense
The past continuous tense is used to;
ü      To express an action going on at sometime in the past
·     They were watching television / football yesterday evening
ü      To express a persistent habit in the past
·     Alan was always telling us about his wife.
Rule of formation: Subject+ was/were +Verb+ -ing + (Object)
c) Past Perfect tense
Past perfect tense shows activities, actions or events that had been completed before a given time in the past. For example
ü      Mary had eaten a meal when I arrived.
ü      I had played a match before you arrived
Uses of the past perfect tense
The past perfect tense is used to;
ü   To express one of the two past actions which had been completed earlier
·     When we reached the theatre, the booking counter had been closed
Rule of formation Subject+ had + Verb + past particle + (Object)
d) Past Perfect Continuous
This tense is used to show an action which had been going on before another action in the past. For example
ü      I had been eating a meal when she arrived
ü      Mary had been waiting for her when she come
Uses of the past perfect continuous
The past perfect continuous tense is used to;
ü   To express an action which began and had been in progress before another action started
·     Munga had been teaching at the university for more than a year before she left for Tanzania.
Rule of formation Subject+ had been +Verb +-ing+ (Object)

ü     Future Tense

Future tense is used to express activities, events or actions that will take place in the future or have been planned to take place in the future or at some point after the time of speaking or writing.
Future tense can be divided into four parts namely; simple future, future continuous, future perfect, and future perfect continuous.
a) Simple Future
This tense shows an action that has still to take place. For example,
ü      Mary will eat a meal tomorrow.
ü      I will go back to Dodoma next week.
Uses of the simple future tense
The simple future tense is used to;
ü   To express future action
·     I shall meet her tomorrow
Rule of formation Subject+ will/shall +be+ verb+ Object
b)Future Continuous Tense
This tense shows an action as going on for sometime in the future. For example;
ü      Mary will be eating a meal.
ü      They will be playing football.
Uses of the future continuous tense
The future continuous tense is used to;
ü   To express an action going on in future
·     When I go home she will be waiting for me.
ü   For future planned action
·     Mushi will be  opening a beauty shop next week
Rule of formation Subject+ will/shall +be +Verb+ -ing+ Object
c) Future Perfect Tense
This tense is used to show an action that will have been completed at a future time. For example;
ü      I will have finished my paper tomorrow by this time.
ü      Mary will have eaten a meal.
Use of the future Perfect tense
The future perfect tense is used to;
ü   To express future completed action
·     I shall have written the letter by tomorrow
·     By next November, I will have received my promotion.
Rule of formation Subject+ will/shall +have+ Verb+ past particle+ Object
d) Future Perfect continuous
This tense is used to show an action that will be going on over a period of time and will end in the future. For example
ü      She will have been working since Monday.
ü      Mary will have been eating a meal.
Uses of the future perfect continuous tense
The future perfect continuous tense is used to;
ü   For an action going on in future and it will continue to a certain time in future
·     By next September, she will have been working in SAUT for five years.
ü   Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect.
·     Kamau will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour
Rule of formation Subject+ will/ shall +have been +Verb+- ing+ (Object)

CONJUNCTIONS

 INTRODUCTION

A conjunction is a word which joins together clauses, sentences and sometimes words or phrases.  Examples include;
        1.  God made the country and man-made the town. (Two sentences)
        2.  Two and Two make four. (two words)
        3.  Halima and Rama are brothers. (Two words)

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions can be divided into two major classes. These are;
·        Coordinating conjunctions
·        Subordinating conjunctions

 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These are conjunctions which join together two sentences, clauses or phrases of equal rank or grammatical weight.

Kinds of coordinating conjunction

i.                   Cumulative/copulative or additive conjunctions
These add one statement to another. For example; and, no less than, so, also, both, as well as etc. as shown below;
a)     As well as writing the letter for me, he posted it.
b)    He is my lecturer so I respect him.
c)     He cooked ‘matoke’ and ate them.
d)    They not only invited me to dinner, but also sent a car to pick me.
ii.                 Adversative/ contrastive conjunctions
These are conjunctions that express opposition or contrast between two statements. They include; but, nevertheless, still, whereas, only, yet etc.
a)     Collins is poor but he is honest.
b)    She was late, still she was not punished.
c)     Peter beats his wife yet he loves her.
d)    My sister is lazy where as my brother is intelligent.
iii.              Disjunctive/ Alternative conjunctions
These conjunctions express a choice between two alternatives. Included here are; or, nor, either-or, neither-nor, else, etc.  For example;
a)     She must repent or she will die.
b)    Agnes is neither a teacher nor a nurse.
c)     Would you like some tea or soda?
d)    Either he is mad or he feigns madness.
iv.              Inferential or illative  conjunctions
These are conjunctions which express an inference or conclusion. In this list are; for, therefore, since, consequently, so, etc. examples in sentences include;
a)     I loved Nancy for she is very brilliant.
b)    Maina is poor so he cannot visit Malaika Resort.
c)     Gadhafi is my enemy therefore I dislike him.
d)    His father died last year consequently; he is facing financial hardships.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

These conjunctions join one clause to another, one of the clauses being dependent on (or subordinate to) the main clause to express a full meaning.

Types  of subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are divided into seven classes:
                   i.            Those Expressing  time-
For example, before, since, when, till, while, etc. eg
a)     Mary had left before I spoke to her.
b)    I began my lesson after they had left.
c)     She promised to wait for him till he comes back.
                 ii.            Those Expressing cause or reason;
They include words such as; because, since, as etc.
a)     She was punished because she was late.
b)    As she is my sister, I love her
c)     Since it is dark, take the torch with you.
              iii.            Those Expressing purpose
Examples here include;
a)     She put the money in a safe place so that it would not be stolen.
b)    Strong measures were taken in order that the rule of law be re-established.
c)     Eat carefully lest you choke.
d)    We eat that we may live.
              iv.            Those Expressing results or consequence
These conjunctions express or show the end result of some action. They include; so…that, that etc
a)     It was so hot that he could not go out.
b)    Mwalimu is so weak that he cannot walk.
                 v.            Those Expressing conditions
They include; if, unless, on condition that, provided (that) etc.
a)     If she comes here I will talk to her
b)    Unless you pay, you won’t go.
c)     I will help u on condition that you give up drugs.
d)    You can take that book provided you return it by tomorrow.
              vi.            Those Expressing contrast
For example; although, even if, though, however etc.
a)     Although he has a lot of money, he doesn’t spend it.
b)    However hard he tried, he failed in the exam.
c)     Though he is poor, he is honest
d)    I shall not forgive him even if he falls on my knees.
            vii.            Those Expressing comparison or degree
For example; than, as-as, so-as
a)     She respected me more than I thought.
b)    He is as healthy as you.
c)     He came later than you.
d)    He is not as intelligent as he seems.

FUNCTIONS OF CONJUNCTIONS IN SENTENCES

Conjunctions perform different functions in sentences as shown below;
a)    To show addition
             We use coordinating conjunctions to show addition. For example;
i) Maria and Lucia are sisters.
ii) People work and also attend professional courses.
b)    To express alternatives
We use conjunctions to express alternatives or choices. The alternatives can be positive alternatives or negative alternatives. For example;
            i) You can take a bus or go by train. (Positive)
ii) Either she is sick or she is pretending. (Positive)
iii) She could neither stand nor walk. (Negative)
iv) He is not a genius nor is he a fool. (Negative)
c)     To express concession
Conjunctions can also be used to express concession. Clauses expressing concession present a result that is different from what is expected. For example,
                               i.            Moses is ninety years old, but he plays golf.
                             ii.            Though he woke up late, he got there in time for the meeting.
                          iii.            Ann went to work despite being unwell.
d)    To express emphasis
Conjunctions can also be used to show emphasis. For example
                               i.            Not only is he a singer but he is also a talented dancer.
                             ii.            The storm not only destroyed buildings but also killed three people.
                          iii.            Both her mother and her father are pilots.
e)     To express condition
Some conjunctions join clauses that express condition. For example;
                               i.            Unless the price of ARVs is lowered, many people will die of AIDS.
                             ii.            Provided that the weather is fine, we shall go for holiday.
                          iii.            You can go out with your friends as long as you come back by six O’clock.
f)      To express contrast
           Conjunctions can also express contrast. For example; whereas, while,
       i.            September is a hot month in Mwanza whereas July is cold.
     ii.            French is taught as an elective subject while English is compulsory for all students.
Exercise
Fill each blank in the following sentence with appropriate
conjunction.
a.     Mother paid the butcher _______ put the meat in her basket.
b.    The wind is cold _______ it was the month of March.
c.      Susan boiled the eggs ______ Jane cut the bread
d.    The match was postponed ______ of the heavy rains.
f.      He visited all his friends ………. he left for America.
g.     I haven’t flown a kite………….. I was a little boy.
h.    ………… you read you will pass.
i.       Is this book yours …….. mine.
j.       The students shall fail………… they work hard.

INTERJECTIONS

INTRODUCTION

Interjections are words used to express sudden feelings or emotions. The emotion can be that of joy, anger, grief, surprise, approval, excitement etc.
They are mostly not grammatically related to the other words in the sentence.
They can be one word or a group of words. Examples of one word injections include;
ü  Wow!
ü  Ugh!
ü  Bravo!
ü  Wow!
ü  Oh!
ü  Alas!
ü  Ouch!
ü  Hey!
ü  Hurrah!
Examples of interjection made up of a group of words include;
ü  My God!
ü  Well done!
ü  Good Lord!
ü  Holy cow!
ü  Good grief!
Assignment: construct sentences using interjections
Examples in a sentence
ü  Alas! He is dead.
ü  Hurrah! we have won the game.
ü  Oh! I got such a fright
ü  Hush! Don’t make noise.

 
Powered by Blogger.