1. General introduction to religion

1.1. What is religion?

The word Religion is derived from a Latin word “religio” which means “fear or awe” in the presence of a supernatural reality or being. Religion can be simply described as belief in spiritual beings. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines religion as belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods.

Religion is an aspect of human experience that may intersect, incorporate, or transcend other aspects of life and society. Religion in this understanding includes a complex of activities that cannot be reduced to any single aspect of human experience. It is a part of individual life but also of group dynamics. Religion includes patterns of behavior but also patterns of language and thought.

1.2. The meaning of comparative religion

Comparative religion is a field of religious studies that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world’s religions. It designates our task to compare and examine themes that cut across the various religions i.e. common themes. Comparative study of religion demonstrates that every religion possesses some measure of truth.

1.3. Reasons for studying Comparative religion

ü To acquire knowledge of the historical development of the major strands of the religions to be discussed.

ü To familiarize with the beliefs and practices that characterize the lifestyle of adherents to these religions.

ü To identify some of the challenges that confront contemporary adherents to these religions.

ü Religion being an integral part of human life, it is, therefore, an appropriate subject for scientific analysis.

1.4. Function of religion

v According to the anthropologists, religion helps to unite people in a shared experience and explanation of life. It provides a pattern of human behavior, often in response to the hazards of life.

v Sociologists stress the social dimension of religious ideas. To them region provides an agreed way of looking at the world. It gives an individual a sense of purpose and meaning.

v Religion plays a significant role in the self-organization of personality. In this regard, religion becomes part of the individual’s personal behavior i.e. leads to personality development.

v It provides general conceptions about the order of existence (creation) i.e. how things exist and why they exist.

v Karl Marx, a sociologist, thinks that religion is the opium of the people. It gives relief to the oppressed; it gives heart to the heartless. It also relieves people of oppression.

1.5. Dimensions/themes of religion (Basic elements of religions)

There are various approaches to looking and studying religion, and different methodologies that can be applied. Ninian Smart considers a ‘dimensional’ approach to the study of religion to be useful because in spite of their diversity, it is possible to make sense of the variety and to discern some patterns in the luxurious vegetation of the world’s religions and sub- traditions through adopting a dimensional approach.

1.5.1. The practical and ritual dimension (Ritual and worship)

Every tradition has some formal practices to which it adheres for instance regular worship, prayers, preaching, and so on. They are often known as rituals. This practical and ritual dimension is very important with faiths/religions of a strongly sacramental kind, such as the Orthodox Christianity with its long and elaborate service known as the liturgy and the Eucharist or Holy Communion for Christians. This dimension is sometimes summed up in the religious context as any outward action linked to an inner intention. It does not have to be public, grand, or set in form, though it sometimes is; it can be private, spontaneous and variable.

1.5.2. The experiential and Emotional Dimension (religious experience)

This is possibly the hardest dimension yet the most important, as it is often what attracts people to or keeps people within a tradition. Religions begin with the religious experiences of individuals. Some of these beginnings are famous and easy to identify. For instance the visions of the prophet Muhammad; the conversion of Paul; and the enlightenment of the Buddha. The emotions and experiences of men are the food on which the other dimensions of religion feed: ritual without feeling is cold and doctrines without compassion are dry. Other related experiences include; dramas of conversion, being ‘born again’, turning around from worldly to other worldly existence.

1.5.3. Narrative or Mythic Dimension (sacred stories)

This is the story side of religion. It is typical of all faiths to hand down vital stories: some historical; some about the origin of the world; some about the concept of evil; some about how death and suffering came into the world; some parables and so on. These stories often are called myths. Stories in religion are often tightly integrated into the ritual dimension. Myths take the form of sacred stories that are passed along from one generation to the next. Many times they are conveyed orally, though some religions record their myths in scripture e.g. the creation story contained in the book of Genesis chapter one and two.

1.5.4. The Doctrinal and Philosophical Dimension (religious beliefs)

Religious doctrines seek to give system, clarity and intellectual meaning to religious faith, rituals and practices. Most of which are found in scriptures. In some religions it is difficult to draw a line between the mythological and doctrinal dimensions of religion. This is because both are contained in the scriptures. Such books are believed to be revealed by God or gods and contain sacred literature, they contain truth that cannot be altered or changed. Such books can only be translated but cannot be changed or edited. These books are used in prayer either in a congregation or by individuals. Most of them contain historical facts about personalities, events, law, songs, and so on. They also contain rituals, ways of worship as well as myths and teachings.

1.5.5. The Ethical and Legal Dimension (religious teachings)

This dimension encompasses moral values, and expressions of what is appropriate and required behavior for people within the tradition. The law which a tradition incorporates into its fabric can be called the ethical dimension of religion. For instance the Torah or law is a framework for the living for the Orthodox Jew. It is also part of the ritual dimension, because, for instance, the injunction to keep the Sabbath as a day of rest is also the injunction to perform certain sacred practices and rituals, such as attending the synagogue and maintaining purity. Similarly, the Christian life has been controlled by the Ten Commandments and the Islamic life has been controlled by the law or sharia, which shapes society both as a religious and political society, as well as the moral life of the individual – prescribing that he should pray daily, give alms to the poor, and so on.

1.5.6. The social and Institutional Dimension (religious communities)

Every religious movement is embodied in a group of people, and that is very often rather formally organized – as Church, Umma or Sangha (Buddhist Monastic order/community). To understand a faith we need to see how it works among people (Sociology of Religion). This dimension deals not only with the ways and forms in which religious institutions develop, but also the relationship between the religion and its social context. In short, the social dimensions of religion include not only the mass of persons but also the outstanding individuals.

1.5.7. The Material Dimension (Sacred Entities, Arts and Architecture)

This dimension encompasses the myriad ways religion is exhibited and expressed in material form, whether in architecture, art, texts, foods, pilgrimage sites, devotional and protective items, clothing, structures, and so on. The social or institutional dimension of religion almost inevitably becomes incarnate in a different way, in material form, as buildings, works of art, and other creations. Some movements such as Protestant/Calvinist Christianity avoid use of external symbols or images as being potentially idolatrous for they might seduce people from the thought that God is a spirit who transcends all representations. However, the material expressions of religion are more often elaborate, moving, and highly important for believers in their approach to the divine. Other important material expressions of a religion are those natural features of the world which are of special sacredness and meaning – the Mount of Olives, Mount Sinai, the Jordan, and so forth.

2. Primal Religious Traditions

2.1. The nature of primal religions

Since prehistoric times, small groups of people throughout the world have practiced their own unique forms of religion. Some of these religions continue to be practiced, especially among the native inhabitants of Australia, Africa, and the Americans. They are primal because they tended to come first, relative to the other religious traditions.

Why studying primal religions?

Provide special insight into two of the basic elements of religions: myth and ritual. Their myths, and the rituals that re-enact them, remain essential sources of knowledge and power for all aspects of their lives.

Secondly, it is from primal religions beginnings all religions stem, more or less directly. Example, the ancestors of Judaism, the religion of the ancient Israelites, was in its early stages a primal religion.

Primal religions tend to be the traditions of tribal peoples, organized in small groups who dwell in villages as opposed to large cities. Primal religions are diverse. In light of this vast diversity, I will not attempt to describe all primal religions. Instead I focus on two: the Aborigines of Australia and African Traditional Religions.

2.2. The Australian Aborigines

The Aborigines, they native people of Australia, were largely unaffected by outsiders until the arrival of Europeans some two hundred years ago. The Aborigines maintained traditions extending many thousands of years into the past. In some areas, notably in the northern and central regions of Australia, these traditions remain largely intact today.

Ø The Dreaming:

The foundation of Aboriginal religion is the concept of the Dreaming. According to Aboriginal belief, the world was originally formless. Then at a certain point in the mythic past, supernatural beings called Ancestors emerged and roamed about earth. The ancestors gave shape to the landscape and created the various forms of life, including the first human beings. They specified the territory each human tribe was to occupy, and determined each tribe’s languages, social rules, and customs. When the Ancestors had finished and departed from earth, they left behind symbols of their presence, in the form of natural landmarks, rock paintings, and so on. This mythic period of the Ancestors is called the Dreaming. In a very real sense, this period lives on, for the Aborigines believe that the spiritual essence of the Ancestors remains in the various symbols they left behind. They inhabit a mythic geography, a world in which every notable landmark, whether it be a rock outcropping, a watering hole, or a cave, is believed to have great religious significance.

The spiritual essence of the Ancestors is also believed to reside within each individual. An unborn child becomes animated by a particular Ancestor when the mother or another relative makes some form of contact with a sacred site. Through this connection each Aborigine is a living representation of an Ancestor. This relationship is symbolized by a totem the natural form in which the Ancestor appeared in the Dreaming. The totem may be an animal, such as a kangaroo or snake, or a rock formation or other feature of the landscape. The individual or group will always be identified in certain ways with his or her totemic Ancestor. The supernatural, the human world, and the world of nature are thus considered to be delicately interrelated. Aboriginal religious life seeks to maintain harmonious relationships among these three aspects of reality.

Ø Aboriginal Religious Life:

Religion, for the Aborigines, is the entire process of recreating the mythic past of the Dreaming in order to tap into its sacred power. This is done primarily through ritual, the re-enactment of myth. It also involves maintaining the structure of society as it was originally established by the Ancestors. This, in turn, requires the performance of certain rituals, such as those of initiation.

Ø Taboo:

Certain people are forbidden to participate in certain rituals. The basis of this structure is the concept of taboo, which dictates that certain things and activities, due to their sacred nature, are set aside for specific member of the group are forbidden to other. Violation of this principle has been known to be punishable by death. The sites and rituals associated with certain Ancestors are for men only. Others, such as those connected with childbirth, are for women only.

Ø Initiation:

Even before birth each Aborigine possesses the spiritual essence of her or his totemic Ancestor. Initiation rituals serve to awaken young people to this spiritual identity, and at the same time redefine their social identity within the tribe. The rituals bring about the symbolic death of childhood, which prepares the way for the spiritual rebirth that is a necessary step toward adulthood. Meanwhile, throughout the course of these rituals, myths of the Dreaming are taught to the young people. In this manner they learn the essential truths about their world and how they are to act within it.

2.3. African Traditional Religion (ATR)

2.3.1. The meaning of ATR

African Traditional Religion has three basic words which have been defined as follows;

(a) African:

It is an African religion because it is basically practiced in Africa. It is the institutionalized patterns of beliefs and worship practiced by various African societies for as back as to be remembered. African religions encompass a variety of indigenous religions of Africa south of the Sahara Desert; it is strictly confined to the indigenous religions of sub-Saharan peoples.

(b) Tradition:

A tradition is a belief, principle or way of acting which people in a particular society or group have continued to follow for a long time. African religion is traditional because it has been handed down from one generation to another for a very long time. The young members of society observe and learn ATR which is expressed in religious practices.

Religion can be defined as a belief in and worship of God/gods. It is the belief in the living God. It is a response to powers superior to people which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and human life. African religion is the practice lived that grew from people’s experience. It comprises of symbols, beliefs, values and practices focused on questions of ultimate meaning. African Traditional religion varies from tribe to tribe just like Christianity has many denominations.

2.3.2. Origin/Beginning of ATR.

Unlike other religions such as Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, which have founders, ATR has no specific founder. It evolved slowly through centuries, as people responded to the situations of their life and reflected upon their experiences. Hence, religious ideas arose in the process of man’s search for answers to life questions and problems.

2.3.3. Characteristics of ATR

Religious practices vary from society to society; however, there are characteristics that are shared as follows:

ü ATR has no specific founders.

ü It has no scriptures or holy books – it is written in the history, the hearts and experiences of people, hence, has been able to survive through all times.

ü There is no proselytization i.e. trying to convert somebody – it spreads freely.

ü It is taught informally through conversations, proverbs, myths and practice or participation in religious practices.

ü It is communal i.e. its beliefs are held by the entire community.

ü It is a way of life of people – from before birth until after death.

ü It’s an indigenous religion – has no reformers, preachers, missionaries – to change, improve or spread it.

ü It is concerned with practical results than with theories and principles.

Misconceptions about ATR

When foreign anthropologists and sociologists first came to Africa they were ignorant about African religion and hence tended to use wrong vocabularies that expressed criticism about ATR. They referred ATR as “worship of ancestors, superstition, paganism, magic or fetishism.

- Worship of ancestors – meant that the entire religious activities were reduced to worshipping of ancestors. These are only given reference but are not worshipped. E.g. shrines are built for them and are mentioned in prayers since they are believed to continue to live, hence, are part of the family (the living dead).

- Superstition – This is a practice based on belief in the power of magic i.e. belief in something without proper grounds. Therefore, reducing ATR to superstition is a big mistake because ATR is based on deep reflections and long experience.

- Paganism/Animism – This is a system of belief and practices basing on the idea that material and perceptual objects are inhabited by spirits. The belief in spirits is only a small portion of the many beliefs held in ATR. Reducing ATR to animism or paganism is a mistake. Paganism means not being a believer of any religion or lack of religion. This shows ignorance of foreigners about ATR otherwise Africans are notoriously religious in that almost the entire life of Africans is much influenced by their religion

- Magic/Fetishism – Magic is the art of controlling events by the use of supernatural power. Though Africans believe in magic, witchcraft and sorcery, but their religion is not rooted in magic for it is a small portion of their religion. On the other hand, fetishism means a belief that certain objects are homes of spirits or a spirit. In such a case objects are worshipped by people, and used as charms. They are protective charms which protect them from dangers. Foreigners considered ATR as fetishism.

The source (where is ATR found?)

ATR has no scriptures or holy books. It is written in the history, the heart and experiences of the people. It has no fixed theories, ideas and rules. To find ATR, one has to look at the life and activities of the people. It is expressed in practical life. The following are some of the sources:

(a)Rituals, Ceremonies and Festivals:

Africans celebrate events either individually or communally. These include birth, naming, initiation, marriage, death, harvest festivals, praying for rain, and so on. The process of celebration has much hidden religious meaning which is carried on from one generation to another.

(b) Shrines, Sacred Places and Religious Objects:

Religious objects, shrines and sacred places are outward and material expressions of religious ideas and beliefs. They help people to practice and hand down their religion.

Shrines are connected with the departed members of the family (family shrines) and others are communal (community shrines). Sacred places include graves, hills, trees, caves, mountains, rivers, and so on. Such places are highly respected and are regarded as refugee for life. Any creature found hiding in such places is not harmed or killed. In case of danger, some African societies run to such places to seek protection from the ancestors. People make sacrifices of animals and offer food when offering different prayers. These are said to be sacred places where people meet with the supernatural. Any kind of evil is not supposed to be done from such places.

Religious objects can be worn around peoples’ necks, waists, legs, wrists, or kept in pockets, bags, houses or on door posts. Others are swallowed and believed to remain in the stomach or planted in houses, compounds or fields to continue operating slowly but effectively.

These are creative paintings, carvings or marks found on wood, stools, stones, pots, handicrafts, calabashes, walking sticks, and human bodies which express religious ideas. Symbols are representatives for some other things. They may take form of insects, birds, animals, figures, trees, colors, etc. For example a white color symbolizes holiness, black symbolizes death and sorrow, the chameleon is a symbol for protection and security while the sound of an owl symbolizes bad omen or death. Each community has unique symbols whose meaning is generally known to the members and they are used to communicate and strengthen the religious ideas.

(d) Music and Dance:

Music and dance express religious ideas especially when they are used in ceremonies. This singing is accompanied by musical instruments and specific body movements. The instruments include drums, rattles, flutes, whistles and clapping of hands. Music gives outlet to the emotional expression of the religious life and it is a powerful means of communication to both the living and the dead. It unites the participants to express fellowship and solidarity. Music and dance are inseparable from African lifestyle and are passed on to the young generation.

(e) Riddles, Proverbs and Wise Sayings:

These are oral expressions which contain religious beliefs, ideas, values and warnings. They present facts about God, the universe, humanity and life in general. They are applied to appropriate situations and mostly spread out through implementation. They are used to entertain and stimulate thinking, but also contain religious ideas and promote their practices. Wise sayings are about the world as generally viewed from a religious or moral perspective, and are handed down from generation to generation.

The following are some of the proverbs taken from various parts of Africa:

“More days more wisdom”.
“What an old man sees seated, a youth does not see standing”.
Truth is seen as eternal and unchanging “Truth never rots”.
It is dangerous to judge by appearances “A large eye does not mean keen vision)”.
The future remains beyond knowledge “Even a bird with a long neck cannot see the future)”.
Nevertheless, it is said, “God will outlive eternity”.
History is seen as vitally important “One ignorant of his origin is nonhuman”, and historians (known as “sons of the soil”) are highly revered “The son of the soil has the python’s keen eyes”.
“It is better to be married to an old woman than to remain unmarried”.
“Don’t cut a carrying strap for a child before it is born”.

(f) Names of people and place:

Often, African names for people and places have religious meaning. They may be given to portray religious ideas and experiences. This shows the influence of religion in the life of the people or society. People who bear religious names carry these ideas and promote those practices.

(g) Myths and legends:

These are stories which may be historical. They are an oral form of communicating religious ideas and practices which are retained and passed on from generation to generation as they are told over and over again. They are a result of people’s reflection on life events. E.g. the myth about the problem of sin among the Asa people of Tanzania, concerning the women and eggs – women were prohibited from eating eggs, but one day the snake tempted a woman into taking them – hence the origin of sin.

(h) Values and morals:

Morals have to do with right and wrong behaviours while values are underlying ideals which safeguard and uphold people as individuals and the world around them. Both cover aspects of truth, justice, love, respect for people and property, keeping of promises and secrets, punishments, rights and responsibilities for both individuals and community. These differ from culture to culture. Moral virtues and offences vary from place to place and group to group, but their presence are always recognized. The ethical teachings and moral responsibilities of most African traditional religions are not codified, since there is no writing. Proper and improper human behaviour is described in the customs, laws, taboos, and traditions of African people. Customs regulate what ought not to be done e.g. stealing, lying, disrespecting elders, adultery, murder, causing deliberate injury to persons or property, practicing witchcraft, and so on. These are regarded as great social offences. A good person is rewarded while an evildoer is punished. E.g. in the area of sexual purity at marriage, some societies would value virginity while others do not – the Bakiga of Uganda would cause a pregnant unmarried girl to die by throwing her down on a cliff!

(i) Beliefs and customs:

Beliefs are comprehensive facts held over particular important issues around which all other aspects are built. E.g. a belief in the existence of God causes the Africans to seek ways of communicating with Him. On the other hand, customs are established modes of behaviour followed by a particular society. They are not always religious but may contain religious ideas as the basis of their formulation. E.g. the Kikuyu of Kenya believe Ngai (God) lives on mountain tops. The noise of thunder is made as He stretches his muscles to dive from one mountain top to another to inspect the land. They look down when lightening appears to avoid looking at God since it is an indicator that the dive is about to take place. Looking down whenever it thunders is a custom which is built on religious ideas of the mode of Ngai’s movements.

Beliefs and customs often go together and they cover all aspects of life. Beliefs deal with religious ideas while customs deal with what people normally approve of and do. They are highly respected and carried on from one generation to another. Even when people are converted from African religion to another religion, they retain many of their former beliefs. Beliefs cover concepts about God. Spirits, birth, death, the hereafter, magic, and so on.

(j) All aspects of life:

Africans are notoriously religious because religion is embedded in all aspects of life. ATR influences all aspects of life for it shapes the character and culture of the people. It is written in the lives of the people and lived out as part of the people. They impart such religious knowledge through their practices and while training others to carry on the religious life of the community.

2.3.4. African belief in mystical powers

Africans believe in the existence of power which is not well known of its constituents and modes of operations. This power is referred to as mystical, because its nature and power are not fully understood. The control of this power follows the hierarchy of beings – God – Spirits – Earthly human beings. These powers are used for various purposes such as; protective, curative, productive, preventive, etc. This power may be used to harm some people by causing misfortune, uncomfortable life, death, and to destroy people’s property.

Categories of mystical power:

Mystical power can be manifested in a variety of ways:

· Mystical power inherent in words – This is manifested in words which can cause a “tangible” effect. Such words are especially uttered by elder people to the young one, especially in times of crisis e.g. the illness of a parent. These mystical words can cause good fortune, blessing, success, sorrow or misfortune.

· Mystical power inherent in people – Africans believe there are some people who have mystical powers to do extra-ordinary things such as walking on fire, eating fire, changing pieces of paper into money, changing grass into sewing needles, lying on thorns, etc.

· Mystical power in form of magic, witchcraft and sorcery.

Magic and religion:

The art of magic, as practiced in most African traditional religions, is always for attainment of practical aims or specific goals. In case of failure, stronger magic is used. Magic aims at manipulating the impersonal mysterious power in nature using certain techniques and formulas, for some advantage and disadvantage of others. What brings magic closer to religion is the fact that the practitioner involves a kind of petition or request to the mystical powers while on the other hand it involves a kind of command to mystical powers. Therefore, magical practices and religious rites go hand in hand, and it is difficult to separate the two especially in dealing with beneficial magical practices.

Magic is of two kinds; i.e. good magic that is used for the benefits of man such as protection against evil forces, fortunes, fertility, since it is openly approved by the society and bad magic which is intended to harm people or their properties. It is feared and it is associated with witchcraft and sorcery and it is secretly practiced.

Witchcraft and sorcery:

Both are practices of bad magic. They originated in the idea that misfortune, pain, suffering came into the world through some people who are capable of taping the mystical powers and use it for bad intentions. Hence, witchcraft and sorcery are of a social significance since they offer an explanation for the misfortunes, pain and suffering. Witches and sorcerers practice anti-social behaviours like operating at night, going beneath the lakes, dancing naked, they are believed to have red and protruding eyes, believed to be cannibals.

Differences between witchcraft and sorcery:

(a)Witchcraft:

ü Though it is practiced by both men and women, findings reveal that 80-85 percent of the accused witches are women.

ü Witchcraft is believed to be hereditary (there is a secret initiation).

ü The witch is believed to be evil and wicked by nature.

ü Witches harm people by mere looking at someone, because the act is a psychic one (i.e. of a human mind).

(b) Sorcery:

ü It is the use of bad magic which is acquired by learning magical techniques – both men and women are possible sorcerers.

ü A sorcerer is not a threat to the entire society but rather to his enemies and only when provoked – it results from jealousy or hatred.

ü Sorcerers use palpable (observable) materials for the practice.

Different persons with mystical powers:

People who are believed to posses mystical powers include; medicine persons/healers, diviners, rainmakers, fortune tellers, herbalists, mediums and priests. These are regarded as religious experts/specialists, religious leaders and sacred people in the society. They can be both men and women. They are wise, intelligent, talented and with outstanding personalities and abilities.

Importance of religious leaders/specialists:

· They symbolize and represent the best aspects of a religion like the presence of God, moral values, beliefs and practices of a society.

· They hold ATR together and ensure its continuity through their religious performances. They are the custodians of religious treasures and knowledge since the religion has no sacred books.

· They act as intermediaries because they posses part of the divine nature which helps them handle mysterious areas of life in the society.

Categories of religious leaders:

(a) Priests and priestesses:

These are mediators between people and the spirit world. They perform prescribed forms of rituals in worship places such as shrines, temples, sacred graves on behalf of the people. They lead public worship, look after religious places, and receive gifts on behalf of the Supreme Being and the other spiritual beings. They could also serve as seers and mediums. During prayer they pour libation and intercede for those in need. In some societies, clan heads are priests for their ancestral cult. They usually work with mediums (intermediaries between the living and the dead) in the shrines.

(b) Medicine people/Healers:

These are referred to as traditional healers and witch doctors. One becomes a traditional healer either hereditary or by intervention of the spirit or the living dead who possesses the candidate and he begins practicing. In either case there is some formal and informal training. They deal with medicine of a magical and spiritual nature. They consult the divinities or spirits to find out possible causes of diseases especially those that are believed to have a spiritual cause which must be identified before treatment can take place. Such causes range from breaking cultural norms to neglecting ancestors.

Medicine people further identify what the annoyed spirits want as compensation and then give it in form of sacrifice, offering or prayer. This involves the full participation of the sick person and sometimes the relatives. They give guidelines over how the patient and relatives should conduct themselves towards that cause. They instruct the patient to take the medicine under specified conditions; this could be before dawn, at a road junction, facing the rising sun or near a grave of a particular ancestor or at times naked.

These basically prepare medicine from plants for the treatment of ailments. They are nicknamed “the people of the trees” because they have a long experience with hunting and forest life which exposes them to herbs, plants, barks and roots with curative properties. Some claim to have received mystical revelations through forest spirits. The sources of medicine they handle varies from parts of animals, birds, insects and plants, animal droppings, urine, water creatures, etc. Herbalists deal with matters of health and general welfare of the society. They know how to diagnose diseases, handle patients and prescribe a cure. Some of them can perform the duties of medicine people too.

The relationship between traditional healers/herbalists and religion:

They see themselves as agents of God’s creative power though they have some pharmacological skills. It is clear to them that they cure sickness but it is God who heals. They anticipate that some of the major illnesses come from the breaking of norms and taboos.

(d) Diviners:

These are mostly men who are primarily concerned with acts of divination. They link human beings with the living dead and the spirits. They can reveal what could be hardly known by lay- people e.g. they reveal secrets of thefts, recovering lost items, imminent danger and future events. Through the help of mediums they can unveil mysteries of human life by use of intuitive knowledge, common sense, insight, sacred knowledge, help of mediums, oracles, etc. They perform their duties when they are possessed by a spirit after the performance of some rituals, such as singing and dancing. After being possessed the person loses his senses and simply becomes the instrument of the spirit in him.

They mostly deal with wrongs of the society; their causes and solutions. They handle cases like barrenness, sorcery, witchcraft, persistent sickness and drought. Because of the nature of their profession, people freely turn to them for private and public affairs. They also play the role of counselors, judges, comforters, and give assurance or confidence during life’s crises. They also serve as priests, seers, problem solvers and prophets. They can serve as medicine men, through the process of healing which involves a ritual herbal birth. They give their clients protective charms, fetishes, amulets, necklaces and other objects to keep off evil and ensure good fortune and health.

(e) Rain-makers:

These are the most important people in the society since rain is regarded as a source of life. For instance, among the Zulu people, are spoken of as the “shepherds of heaven”. People always turn to them whenever there is drought and take them gifts. They perform rituals in order to make rain. Rain- makers are seen as intermediaries between people and God or the spirits that are believed to give rain. In some societies, whenever it rains people believe that God is falling.

Rain- makers use sacred objects such as rain- stones which are rare and believed to have fallen from the sky. They can also burn rain leaves whereby the smoke from them is thought to capture the rain from the sky and bring it down. On other occasions rain is made by use of water in various ways such as ‘ceremonial sprinkling of water’ on the crowds or at the place of the rain making ceremony. Rain-makers are trained by their fellow rain-makers. Their training involves spending a long period of time studying the characteristics of weather, the sky, they also employ commonsense. They are believed to powers of stopping rain.

(f) Kings and chiefs (Rulers):

Rulers hold a special place in the community. They are not simply political heads but also sacred personalities who possess some spiritual and mystical powers. Their office is a link between human rule and spiritual government. They are seen as a representation of the Supreme Being among the living. They are considered to be holy and therefore people speak well of them, respect them, bow or kneel before them, obey them and pay them taxes. Rulers are appointed by succession i.e. from the royal family – the ruler’s son or any other member of the royal family, or by choosing – done by a council in consultation with the spirits. This is accompanied by a special ceremony (coronation ceremony).

Kings are divine beings who are believed to have control over people, rain, fertility and disease. They perform certain rituals to revitalize or renew their powers and bring natural forces under control. They are considered to be divine and at the same level with divinities. They are surrounded by religious leaders who constantly consult with the divinities or spirits and perform rituals to support and protect the rulers.

Chiefs may be supreme rulers or subordinates to kings in those societies. They are the representatives of the ancestors who founded the society and therefore are custodians of its traditions and customs.

2.3.4.1. Belief in spirits

Africans believe that every creature has a soul/spirit. Spirits are understood as invisible beings that exist and have an influence to man’s life. There are different categories of spirits.

· Nature spirits of the earth – These are associated with natural phenomena of the earth like rocks, rivers, trees, mountains, forests. They are believed to stay in and control these things. They are offered sacrifices and offerings periodically to keep them happy. Most river spirits are believed to manifest themselves in form of snakes and old people.

· Nature spirits of the sky – These are spirits associated with objects and forces in the sky. They include the sun, moon, stars, rain, storm, rainbow, thunder and lightening. People believe that such objects and forces are themselves the spirits or that there are spirits occupying and controlling them.

· Animal spirits – These are associated with human spirits such that animals can be sacrificed instead of human beings. Ancestral spirits are believed to manifest themselves in form of animals such as snakes, leopards, lions and lizards. For instance among the Baganda and Banyoro of Uganda, departed kings are believed to appear as leopards to inspect their kingdoms. Among the Kikuyu of Kenya ancestors are believed to manifest themselves in form of lizards to receive sacrifices.

· Ancestral spirits/Human spirits – These are spirits of people who have died since African societies came into existence especially relatives. They are physically dead but they continue to live in the spirit world “the living dead”. This indicates that physical death is not the end of everything but is just a transformation of human life in the hereafter. They are believed to witness what the living are doing although the reverse is impossible. Ancestral spirits are of two categories: the distant spirits or the dead of long ago (those that cannot be remembered by name but their contributions are evident in their descendants), and the living dead (those living in the spirit world and are believed to stay near the homesteads as guardians).

· Divinities – These are a category of spirits who are classified as superior to others because of the exemplary lives they lived while still on earth as human beings. They are the traditional heroes of the society in areas like war, child care, hunting, etc. They are associated with specific aspects or goals of society such as work, family life, rain, crops and survival of society, where they showed their excellence. Divinities are believed to retain their ability to do well even in the spirit world and are consulted by people who desire to do well or those who have problems in such areas. They are divine and can be accessed at any time. They are God’s representatives on earth (intermediaries); however, they are not equal to God because their powers depend on God.

Basically, the hierarchy of authority in the spirit world is as follows:

God (Supreme Being)

Divinities

Distant (long ago) spirits

Ancestors

The living dead

……………………………………………………death line

Kings or Chiefs

Clan Elders

Family Heads

Individuals

N.B: The arrows show the flow of authority.

Spirits are believed to control natural phenomena and they are also linked to the human needs which they are believed to provide. They are believed to be everywhere, but there are some particular places considered to be their homes such as rocks, mountain tops, hills, forests, rivers, grave yards, sky, etc. They are also believed to dwell in human beings. They are considered to be the guardians and protectors of the earthly humans. The ancestral spirits are held in deep reverence, they are highly respected, they are feared, and they are offered sacrifices, offerings and prayers. In reverence of the ancestors, children are named are named after them.

2.3.4.2. Belief in God/Supreme Being

2.3.4.2.1. The concept of God in ATR:

Africans believe in the existence of a Supreme Being and his presence is never questioned. This belief is the centre of ATR and it greatly influences all the other beliefs. The name God is used interchangeably with “Supreme Being”. The name God emphasizes His spirituality while the name Supreme Being shows His humanity. Africans focus more on this human nature of the Supreme Being as shown by the activities attributed to him and the names used to refer to him. These names are created from ideas which are drawn from the African environment, experience, and African beliefs. This proves that African names for God are of African origin and not foreign.

Therefore, the concept of Supreme Being and belief may have risen from people’s reflections concerning the universe. Africans believe that the universe did not exist by itself; therefore, there must have been a creator who is acknowledged to be God. References of God are found in African traditional songs, proverbs, myths, and so on. The African concept of God could not come from external religion – influence.

Generally speaking, African religions hold that there is one creator God, the maker of a dynamic universe. After setting the world in motion, this Supreme Being withdrew and remains remote from the concerns of daily human existence. As a result, people do not ordinarily offer sacrifices or organize a cult around this high god. Instead, they turn to secondary divinities who serve the Supreme Being as messengers or go-betweens. These secondary divinities are sometimes portrayed as children of the supreme god, but religious teachings also regard them as refractions of a divine being.

2.3.4.2.2. African names of God

In African traditional societies, names have a deep significance. Names signify the role of the person in the society such as respect, value, affection. God has the biggest number of names which reflect what the Africans believe, think and know about the Supreme Being. The names of God can be categorized into three categories as follows:

· Descriptive names of God – these show what his nature is. They represent God’s divine attributes such as holiness, merciful nature, goodness, power, generosity, and so on. Examples; Mwema, Mwenyezi (Swahili), Rugaba (Haya), etc. He is all powerful (omnipotent), all knowing (omniscience), omnipresent.

· Attributive names of God – these focus on the works he has done such as the creator, sustainer, provider, and ruler. They are associated with human action made possible by use of the five senses – smell, sight, hearing, taste and feeling. Examples; Mutonzi (Haya), Mulungu/Murungu (by several East African peoples), Olorun (Yoruba of Nigeria), Ngai (Masai), Kibumba (Basoga of Uganda), etc.

· Anthropomorphic names of God – these are attributes of God to human characteristics or human behaviour which attach human pictures, features or images to God. He is associated with human understanding, care and love. Such names show him as a parent, father, friend, great ancestor, and so on.

2.3.4.2.3. The nature of God (attributes of God)

Though Africans believe God cannot be seen, they have formulated certain ideas about the nature of God through their religious insights. God’s nature is conceived as follows:

· He is all good – this idea is reached by observing what he does for people, what he gives them, his being approachable, and so on.

· He is merciful – this is reached by observing his acts like giving blessings to the people.

· God is holy – he is thought to be pure and holy for he does no wrong or evil.

· He is all powerful – he is thought to be able to do everything, nothing is impossible for him.

· He is all- knowing (omniscience) – Africans believe that nothing can be hidden from God. His knowledge, wisdom and understanding have no limit.

· He is present everywhere (omnipresent) – God is believed to be everywhere therefore sees everything that is done.

· God is self-existent – He existed before everything, he was and he will ever be i.e. the alpha and omega. He was not created, has neither mother nor father.

· He is considered as a human person – this is expressed by the anthropomorphic names of God i.e. he is believed to possess human characteristics.

· He is just – he is believed to reward those who do good and to punish the wrong doers.

2.3.4.2.4. Worship of God

Worship is the practical and verbal human response to God. It is also man’s contact with God, and his submission to God. Worship includes religious rituals which revere or praise the Supreme Being.

Purpose for worship and the value of worship:

It is an act where the people meet with the spiritual beings (spiritual world). Through worship, Africans are able to bridge the gap between human beings and the Supreme Being; they get represented and receive a response from the Supreme Being.

The basis of worship is the belief that the Supreme Being is near enough to be approached by the people. He pays attention to them and answers their requests accordingly. Regular contacts between the physical and the spirit worlds are maintained through worship which creates a healthy relationship to seek spiritual help. During times of crisis, the living depend on this healthy relationship to seek spiritual help, hence, it gives them a sense of security, peace, social harmony and dispels all fears.

Worship helps people develop a spiritual outlook to life and become more conscious of the distinction between the body and the spirit which enables them to live a balanced life.

It also helps people to realize their relationship with their creator, hence, helps them draw closer to the creator.

It enables them communicate with the Supreme Being and feel accepted and understood by this friendly and approachable Supreme Being.

Aspects (means) of worship:

Africans respond to God in verbal and non-verbal ways. Means of worshipping include sacrifices, offerings, prayers and places of worship.

· Prayer – this is an address to a deity with verbal or non-verbal expressions. It is a means of communication between the individual and the Supreme Being. Prayers centre on issues like petitions, asking for blessings, thanksgiving, asking for forgiveness, rain, success in war, tribal peace, and so on. Through prayer, people are relieved of anxieties, fears, frustration and worries. Prayers cultivate human dependency on the Supreme Being. African prayers are always concise and precise.

· Sacrifices – A sacrifice is the act of giving up material items to the deity to gain some favour, mercy and any other value requested. In most cases it involves the spilling of blood with or without the death of the victim. In African societies, life is closely associated with blood such that shedding it in sacrifice signifies the giving back of that life back to the Supreme Being who is the ultimate giver of life. The animal for sacrifice is carefully selected of a specific type and colour, well-bred by an upright owner in order to be acceptable to the Supreme Being. In serious cases sacrifice may involve human sacrifice for instance, a threat to individual or community life through destructive floods, famine, drought, rain, war, epidemics, and so on. The destroyed life is believed to atone for the lives of other people and protect the tribe from destruction. E.g. among the Galla of Kenya, a virgin girl was drowned in River Tana as a rain sacrifice.

· Offerings – Offering involves the giving of material things to the deity to create a bond of friendship, influence and propriety. Offerings include human beings, foodstuffs, money, milk, agricultural products, animals, and so on.

Places of worship:

Communal sacrifices and offerings are normally made at shrines, on hills, prominent trees, lake sides, waterfalls, sacred graves and river banks. On the other hand, personal or family sacrifices are made near or in the home – in the house, graveyard, courtyard, or family shrine. These places should be respected and no misbehavior is expected around such places.

2.3.4.2.5. Separation between God and man (the concept of the origin of evil)

Many African myths describe God as existing in and extending into all parts of the created universe. They show that long time ago, God used to live with people but later he withdrew from man to heaven partly because of man’s disobedience or any other careless factors. This separation brought bad consequences such as suffering, death, etc.

According to the Ashanti of Ghana, God dwelt in the sky but closely to men. When a woman constantly knocked him with a pestle while pounding “fufu”, he got annoyed and went up in the sky in order to escape the knocking. In their effort to follow him up, the people constructed a tower. Unfortunately it collapsed and killed the people; hence, they gave up on following him.

Among the kamba of Kenya, it is believed that death and suffering was brought about by weaverbird. Once upon a time, God sent a chameleon to tell the people that they would never die. Due to its slow speed it took too long to arrive, then God sent a weaverbird to deliver the same message, but due to its forgetfulness it distorted the message and told the people that God had said they would die. Hence, people started to die.

Among the Mende, it is believed that God used to dwell among the people. Due to their frequent going to him to ask for things he got tired and moved off to another place.

All the various myths/stories narrate the broken relationship between God and the people that changed the good relationship they used to enjoy. The result of that disrupted the original state of man, man lost happiness, innocence, peace, free supply of food and death resulted. Many African myths depict the original state of human beings as one of childlike ignorance, happiness, immortality and eternal bliss. The loss of this original state of eternal bliss differs from one group to another. No matter how these stories depict the original state and present condition of African peoples, they all attempt to establish a divine-human link, which in turn provides a frame work for self-identity.

2.3.5. Rites of passage (Events of life)

A rite is an established way of carrying out a religious action of significance through word, symbol or observance. On the other hand, a ritual is a sacred custom or any form of representative behaviour which is fixed by tradition. They are beliefs put into practice, acted as external manifestation of internalized beliefs.

To African peoples, practically every element of life, from birth to final entry into the ancestral community after death, has a religious aspect that is marked with a specific ritual. There are four major transitional stages in the life of an individual which represent significant transitional moments that require appropriate ritual acts. These are; birth, initiation, marriage and death. Rituals are performed at each of these rites of passage of human existence.

(a) Pregnancy/Birth:

In all African societies, there is great joy when a wife finds out that she is expecting a child because the birth of a child is a great blessing to the family. Pregnancy is a sign of fertility since it assures everyone that the woman is able to bear children and it is a security for a woman’s marriage.

Most of the tribes in Africa have rituals and rites to ensure the safety of the pregnant mother and her child. Some regulations and taboos are observed for example; the woman stops sleeping with her husband for a certain period, not doing some works – cutting firewood, using sharp instruments like knives and razor blades, drawing water, collecting firewood, etc. She is also forbidden to eat certain foods – eggs, excessive fat, etc. Some offerings are made to God in thanksgiving and prayer for the expected child and diviners are also consulted. The expectant mother wears some protective charms and sometimes is sent back to her parents’ home for extra attention as she awaits the delivery. The expectant mother is given special care and attention and she is highly respected because she is carrying two lives.

When the time for delivery arrives, a traditional midwife is called. In some societies a special house is put aside for this cause. Almost all over Africa, men are not permitted to participate in the delivery exercise. The gender of the baby is announced immediately through shouting, yelling, or screaming by the attendants to the delivering mother.

Some rituals are performed after birth in thanksgiving, for purification and protection. In most societies the placenta is treated in a special way since it is regarded as a religious link between the baby and mother. The umbilical code is more or less treated in the same manner. Some societies keep the mother and baby in seclusion for some days in order to give her time to rest and recover and to protect them from harm. At the end of the seclusion, a big ceremony is prepared. During the ceremony the baby’s hair may be shaved as a sign of purification, separation and newness i.e. separation from the mother’s womb, hence, belongs to the entire family and community.

The child is then named, which is an official introduction to the community. The child gets an identity or personality. The names given depend on various incidences such as;

· Names reflecting the feelings of the parents – long awaited child, religious feelings of parents.

· Names of ancestors – names of the departed ancestors as a reflection of immortality (reincarnation).

· Names reflecting the time or occasion of birth – weather, prevailing events such as war, rain, famine.

· Names which describe the child and its background – the place of birth, characteristics of the mother’s birth, unusual birth e.g. twins, a child who brings out legs first.

· Clan names – some societies give clan names.

Birth ceremonies vary from group to group; but almost all African peoples observe this happy occasion by naming the child, introducing it to the relatives and neighbours, offering sacrifices and prayers to the ancestors for the cleansing of the mother and child from birth impurities.

(b) Initiation:

Initiation rites are usually very elaborate, lasting from a few days to more than two years. They are performed often in seclusion with the aim of introducing the youth into adulthood. In some societies initiates submit to physical hardships, pain and emotional strains, symbolizing their transition from a childhood condition to a stage of adult responsibility. The widely practiced initiation rites are circumcision and clitoridectomy (FGM). In some societies initiation involves; scarification, tattooing, removal of some teeth, killing of a fierce animal, etc. The whole purpose of the initiation rite is to impart into the initiates the basic knowledge on tribal history, social duties, ancestral customs, before they assume their proper role in the society.

The importance of initiation is that it symbolizes the death of one way of life and rising in another stage of life. The circumcision, tattooing, FGM, removal of teeth, cutting of ear lobes, is a test of courage, endurance, perseverance, obedience, a symbol of death and transformation. The blood which is shed binds the initiate to the departed members of the society i.e. the ancestral spirits. It is seen as a gateway to marriage for it is during this time that the initiates are taught sex education and how to conduct themselves in marriage. It brings members of the society together.

Marriage is considered a vital link between death and life i.e. the departed, the living and the unborn. Marriage is a festive communal event involving the entire extended family – the bride and groom, their families, clans, ancestors, and the unborn. It is conceived as a command from the Supreme Being. Everyone is expected to get married, whether the marriage partners choose each other or are matched by parents or relatives. Failure to marry constitutes an offence against society. However, there are a few exceptions whereby some people are exempted from marriage e.g. those offered to the spirits.

In most African societies, gifts are exchanged during the engagement/courtship period known as dowry or bride price. Dowry is the property that a wife or wife's family/husband or husband’s family gives to the husband/wife upon marriage. In certain societies the dowry formed a part of an exchange of wealth between intermarrying families; it was often accompanied by some payment made by the groom to the bride's family, called the bride-price. This social and economic arrangement is still a fundamental part of certain African cultures. The dowry may also serve as insurance against bad treatment of the wife by the husband or the husband by the wife; it must be forfeited to the wife or wife's family/husband or husband’s family in case of divorce. Many societies pay attention to the girl’s virginity. Procreation is very important as children are the seal of marriage. The more the children one has, the greater the blessings both in this life and hereafter. Children are the core of marriage. In cases of barrenness and sterility some arrangements are made. If the husband is sterile the wife produces children through the brother of the husband, and in a few cases divorce is permitted. Children can also be born on behalf of the deceased who died before being married.

(d) Death:

Death is seen as a transformation from this world to the spirit world. It is a separation of the spirit and body. It is considered to provide the passage from this world to the world of spirits and the company of departed ancestors. Though many myths have tried to explain the origin of death, it still remains a mystery. In most African societies, death is believed to be caused. Some myths show that death resulted by accident, from a woman, from animals or from the ancestral spirits. It is also believed that death is caused by sorcery, curse from spirits. In some rare cases, death may be believed to be caused by sickness, old age, accident, etc.

Death is believed to be a transition and not a complete destruction of the individual. In this case when one dies, he/she is considered to have returned home, to have gone away, to have said “yes” to death, to have ceased to eat, drink or breathe, to have shut the eyes, to have slept, to have joined the ancestors, etc. Some societies believe that the departed remain/linger around the homestead, underground, in the desert, in the sky, forests, river banks, hills, etc. The idea of rewarding or punishing the departed is not common in Africa because there is a belief that life in the hereafter continues in the same manner as that of the living.

Funeral rites are observed very carefully so as not to offend the departed and they vary from society to society. Some rituals are performed when someone dies. The corpse is well treated by special people in the community, by washing, anointing, closing the eyes, shaving, cutting of nails, dressing, etc. In some societies, the corpse may be kept for a while in a special hut before it is buried. When time for burial comes the body is buried facing a given direction. Some societies bury the dead with foodstuff, personal belongings, weapons, and money to ensure the sustenance and safety of the departed during the journey to the next world. The heir is then selected and installed. A good number of rituals surrounding death in the family show a great respect and fear for the deceased in the family and the belief in the here-after which is next to this earthly world.

The departed are remembered depending on the role played during one’s lifetime e.g. family heads, adults, the married, those survived by children. The children, those without children and the unmarried are easily forgotten. The departed are offered some food and drinks, they are consulted, children are named after them, people direct their prayers to the Supreme Being through them.

3. Religions originating in south asia

3.1. Hinduism

To learn about Hinduism depends first of all on understanding a perspective of reality – the universe, human beings, and the divine.

the concept of Salvation

For all Hindus, salvation is the ultimate goal, for most it is a distant goal, not to be attained in this lifetime. Hindus believe in reincarnation. And thus anticipate a long series of lifetimes, so they can afford to be very patient regarding the goal of salvation.

The Hindu term for salvation is moksha, which means “liberation” or release.” It is a release from this ordinary, finite, limited realm of existence into the infinite ocean of the divine. Moksha is an experience characterized by infinite being, infinite awareness, and infinite bliss. The details of this experience defy description, for it is a realm completely beyond this world. Never again to be reincarnated, the Hindu who has attained moksha is united forever with the divine, having returned to the sacred source.

Reincarnation puts an interesting twist on the problem of morality. On one hand, to die without attaining liberation must be considered a defeat, because the soul is then destined to remain on the wheel of rebirth. On the other hand, the prospect of reincarnation denies death at least some of its sting. Death is not final for Hindus – in fact, it is likely to be experienced again.

The Divine: One Ocean, Many Names.

Most Hindus believe that all reality – God, the universe, human beings, and all else – is essentially one thing. At the same time, Hindus worship many gods and goddesses.

Monism: All is Brahman.

Hindus generally believe in monism, the doctrine that all reality is ultimately one. Monists believe that all forms of reality – gods and goddesses, plants an animals, the material universe, and humans – share a common essence. Hindus call this essence Brahman. Brahman is the ground of existence and the source of the universe. It is discoverable only through profound contemplation, and its true nature is not revealed on the surface of things. Brahman is impersonal, without characteristics that can be seen, heard, or even intelligibly thought about in the mind. All reality – the universe, oneself, and everyone else – shares one essence. And that one is Brahman. Or that one is Atman.

Polytheism: 330 million Gods.

The divine is thought ultimately to be one essence. And yet Hindus subscribe to polytheism, believing in many gods and goddesses (traditionally, 330 million). We can best understand this apparent contradiction by continuing to think of the ocean. Though we speak of different oceans that fill separate areas of the earth’s surface, there is in reality only one body of water. Hinduism’s many deities provide this, each with its own personal characteristics. Hindus can freely worship whichever gods and goddesses they like.

Many worlds, many lifetimes: Hindus cosmology.

All religious traditions set forth a cosmology – an explanation regarding the nature of the universe. The important thing for Hindus is to deal with the universe as it is, to seek the salvation that eventually will bring freedom from the world’s bonds. The cyclical cosmology of Hinduism declares that the universe undergoes long periods of creation and destruction, a rhythmic pattern that repeats itself endlessly. The end of the present period is drawing near – although millions of years remain. As the end of the cycle approaches, the destructive forces already at work will gradually gain the upper hand, eventually bringing all of creation to a deep stillness and long pause. Then the entire universe will be re-created: the galaxies will be remade; souls will arise again and come to inhabit the various life forms; Hinduism itself will evolve all over again.

Law and order: Divine principles in the world.

Two important principles, karma and dharma, serve to connect the divine with this world. Karma and dharma by providing a basis for a moral life in this world serve to permeate the earthly life with spiritual significance. Karma literally means “action” or “deeds.” As the principle that determines the nature of each reincarnation. It determines all the particular circumstances and situations of one’s life. It functions independently of any deity or of a formal day of judgment. Individuals are automatically held to be morally responsible for their actions; as the old saying goes, “As you sow, so shall you reap.” Karma determines the life form into which the soul is born, whether it be a deity or other supernatural being, a human, or an animal. Of the various life forms, only humans have the will to affect the status of their karma. Therefore, being human is both a privilege and a demanding responsibility.

Dharma is the complete rule of life. For every activity there is a way of acting that conforms to dharma. Hindus look to four different sources when seeking guidance about dharma in particular situations. These sources, in order from highest to lowest level of authority, are (1) divine revelation, as expressed in the sacred scriptures; (2) sacred tradition, as passed on from generation to generation; (3) the practices and example of those who are considered the wisest members of society; and (4) conscience. The Hindu perspective on human destiny has a significant effect on the lives of individuals. Individuals, however, are part of the larger social order.

Hinduism has divided society into four distinct classes, or castes Brahmin priests; kshatriya warriors and administrators; vaishya producers, such as farmers, merchants, and artisans; and sbundra servants and laborers. An additional category consists of the “outcastes,” those who are considered to be outside of society altogether. This group includes the “untouchables,” who only recently have begun to enjoy some legal rights, thanks to the work of Mahatma Gandhi. He renamed the outcasts Harihan, “God’s children.” In general the caste system is rigidly base on heredity. One is simply born to a lifelong caste identity, as determined by karma, which directs the soul into whatever situation it deserves. In this way karma can be seen to justify the caste system itself. One does not just happen to be born an outcaste; it is deserved, based on the “stinking conduct” of a previous life.

Acting one’s age: four stages of life

Hindu society distinguishes four stages of life, each with its own set of specific duties. The stages are especially relevant for males.

1^st stage: undergoing an initiation ritual at about the time of puberty, the Hindu boy enters the first stage, that of the student. Characterized by intensive study of the Vedas and other sacred literature, this stage lasts until marriage.

2^nd stage: it is the householder stage, in which the worldly tasks of pursuing a career and raising a family are central. Women are involved in this stage along with their husbands.

3^rd stage: the birth of the first child marks the beginning of the third stage, called the forest-dweller stage. A man may choose to ask his wife to accompany him through this stage, which allows retreat from worldly bonds in order to engage fully in the spiritual quest.

4^th stage: is that of the sannyasin, or wandering ascetic. This stage is for those forest dwellers who have developed a readiness to return to society, but in a manner such that they remain detached from the normal attractions and distractions of social life. For women who have accompanied their husbands into the forest, it is natural that they, too, might advance to the fourth stage. If so, husband and wife live detached from each other, having transcended the ordinary ways of this world, including those of marriage.

Seeking one’s desire: four goals of life

Liberation from samsara, in the Hindu view, is the only perfect form of salvation. Moksha is the ultimate goal of life. But what if we enjoy this world, welcome the challenges of this life, and relish its fruits? What if we have no real desire to leave this world, so much so that reincarnation itself is looked upon positively, as yet another opportunity to seek the many pleasures of existence?

1. Sensual Pleasure

Hinduism embraces such pleasure seeking, even as it teaches the ultimate goal of liberation. Pleasure, or kama, is a legitimate aim of life. No religion denies that human desire pleasure. Religions differ drastically, however, in their judgments as to the goodness or rightness of fulfilling this desire. Hinduism tends to surpass most religions in its outright celebration of the pursuit of pleasure. Kama, which refers mainly to the pleasures of sensual love, is to be embraced by whosoever desires it, provided that the lovers remain within the limits of dharma. So legitimate is the pursuit of kama that some of Hinduism’s sacred literature is devoted to the enhancement of sensual love.

2. Material success

Despite its complete legitimacy, the appetite of kama is believed to have a limit. Eventually the fulfillment found in love will no longer satisfy completely. A yearning arises for something else. For most people this yearning is for artha, material success and the social power and prestige that accompany it. Just as North American secular society tends to embrace the pursuit of money, Hinduism celebrates the goal of artha. But artha, too, eventually proves unfulfilling. In due time people experience a yearning to strive for something beyond pursuits that provide only for personal and material needs.

3. Harmony with Dharma

This yearning lead to the third goal, which is called dharma. As the third goal of life, dharma maintains its meaning as the general principle of ethical duty. But when dharma is embraced as the primary goal of life, it is no longer merely a duty, begrudgingly performed. It is now that which is most desired. The profound joy of living in harmony with dharma is known first hand. No one needs to tell the Hindu who pursues this goal that “it is more blessed to give than to receive”. The blessings of dharma give fuel to its fire. Yet even perfect harmony with dharma is a limited joy, destined eventually to lead to even deeper yearnings. After all, the world for which the ethical person is concerned even if the concern is unconditional is still the world of this realm, afflicted with the unending pains of samsara.

4. The Bliss of Moksha

All Hindus are destined to seek the fourth goal of life: the infinite being, awareness, and bliss of moksha, the great ocean into which all rivers eventually flow. And the paths to moksha that are available to Hindus are as numerous and diverse as the rivers of India. To the next section the three major paths to salvation are considered.

Three Paths to Salvation

Hinduism embraces three great paths to moksha. People have different talents and strengths, and each of the three paths draws primarily on one of the following human tendencies: to be active, to gain knowledge, and to experience emotional attachment. The paths are not mutually exclusive; in practice, Hindus often follow more than one. All three are revered as effective means of moving closer to the ultimate goal of liberation.

1. For the active: the path of works.

For the majority of people, those engaged in the day-to-day tasks of earning a living and raising a family, those for whom physical activities come most naturally, the favored means of seeking liberation is the path of works. Simply to understand and to practice, this path has everything to do with living in accordance with dharma. In this path of works is marked by an attitude of unselfishness. When doing the actions, one must avoid selfishly claiming credit for having accomplished something. This is challenging, for humans tend to be inclined toward selfishness.

2. For the philosophical: the path of knowledge.

The shortest but steepest ascent to liberation follows in the path of knowledge. This path is intended for those with talent for philosophical reflection. It requires the follower to devote a great deal of time to learning and meditation.

Whereas the path of works emphasizes the doing of right actions over wrong one, the path of knowledge emphasizes the attainment of knowledge over ignorance – knowledge of the true nature of reality. With this experience, reached through profound contemplation of the innermost self, comes a full awareness of truth, a certitude that has the power to transform the knower, thus leading to liberation.

3. For the emotional: the path of devotion.

Based in loving reverence for one’s chosen god or goddess, the path of devotion is most suitable for those to whom emotional attachment comes naturally. This path directs spiritual energy outward, in worship of the deity. Such worship is beneficial because the gods and goddesses look with favor upon their devotees, and answer their prayers. Most important, the path of devotion moves its adherents closer to salvation. Worship requires a focusing of attention on the divine, and away from the finite self. Through worship, the path of devotion helps to reduce the individuality that binds the self to samsara.

3.2. Buddhism

Buddhism, like Hinduism, arose in ancient India. Buddhism began with one man. He was merely a man – not a god or other supernatural being – but he was an exceptional man who underwent an extraordinary experience. Briefly put he “woke up” (and hence the name Buddha, which is derived from budh, “to awaken”). He awoke to full awareness of the nature of the human condition, and to the means of transcending it. The religion of Buddhism teaches the discoveries attained by this man, Gautama, through this experience of awakening.

Born in about 563 B.C. the future Buddha was given the name Siddhartha. His family’s name was Gautama, and so his full name is Siddhartha Gautama. His family belonged to the warrior caste, and his father was the ruler of a small region in northern India. Gautama was thus born into a position of worldly power. He grew up in luxury, safe from the sufferings of the outside world. He was surrounded by thousands of beautiful dancing girls, and servants who provided for his needs.

The four passing sights.

Soon Gautama was to discover that such satisfaction would not endure forever. In spite of his father’s attempts to shield him from the harsh realities of the world, Gautama encountered them firsthand in the famous episode known as the four passing sights.

1. While on a pleasure excursion in the countryside, his chariot passed by a decrepit old man. Never before having seen old age,

2. On a second ride, the prince saw a diseased man, and again was dismayed and deeply disturbed. How could people enjoy life when disease threatened them all?

3. On the third trip, Gautama saw a corpse for the first time.

These first three sights were penetrating lessons about the reality of suffering and the impermanent nature of life’s pleasures. Having seen them, Gautama knew that he would never again find contentment in the luxuries of the palace. Nor could he again feel safe, now that he had learned the truths of old age, disease, and death. He mounted his horse and rode out from the palace, grieving as he observed the toil of peasants plowing the fields, and the destruction of living things uprooted by the plows. Eventually Gautama saw a religious mendicant, one who had chosen to lead a homeless life of solitude. The man explained that he was in search of salvation from this world of suffering, and then he continued on his way.

4. The mendicant, the fourth of the passing sights, filled Gautama with elation and hope.

The great going forth.

At the age of twenty-nine, Gautama gave up his life as prince, secretly leaving his family and palace by horseback in the dark of night. Gautama removed his jewels and dismissed his servant, sending him back with a message for the king: Gautama did not leave out of resentment or lack of affection. Rather, his purpose was to put an end to old age and death. Gautama renounced a life of power and sensual enjoyment for the austere rigors of a religious mendicant’s life. This event in Gautama’s life is known as the great going Forth, and is revered by Buddhists as the triumph of the spiritual over the worldly life.

Gautama came upon other mendicants who taught him their versions of meditation. Quickly he learned their methods, but he was not satisfied with their results. Salvation, he believed, lay beyond the meditative accomplishments of these teachings. Soon he joined a group of five mendicants who practiced asceticism (rigorous self-denial) in order to win salvation. Gautama excelled in the practice of fasting, spending the next several years on the brink of starvation. The tradition tells of meals consisting of one piece of fruit, one sesame seed, one grain of rice. In the belief that reduction of the body would increase his spiritual powers, Gautama was physically reduced to skin and bone.

Middle way.

Starvation did not lead to salvation. And so, six years after leaving the palace, in another famous episode, Gautama accepted a simple meal of rice and milk. He quickly regained his strength, and was thereby enabled to proceed on his quest for salvation. His five companions left him, disgusted that he had abandoned asceticism.

Gautama thus discovered the central Buddhist doctrine of the Middle way. Having earlier rejected a lifestyle of sensual indulgence in the palace, he now rejected the other extreme of asceticism. A healthy spiritual life depends on a healthy physical life. Though indulgence in bodily pleasure is rejected. In general, the doctrine of the Middle way embraces the idea that contentment is a good thing. Spiritual happiness implies complete happiness – in body, in mind and in spirit.

The enlightened one.

Now Gautama, contented and strong in body, was prepared to devote all his effort to attaining salvation. Sitting down in the lotus position beneath a fig tree, he resolved not to leave the spot until he had found complete and perfect fulfillment.

Traditional accounts of Gautama’s enlightenment begin by depicting his encounters with the basic human shortcomings of fear and passionate desire. Mara, the god of death, noted Gautama’s resolution, and was alarmed at the prospect that he might succeed. Attempting to defend his realm, Mara desperately tried to frighten Gautama from his spot. But Gautama could not be frightened away. Them Mara sent forth his three daughters: the goddesses Discontent, Delight, and Desire – hoping to move Gautama through an appeal to his passions. Again Gautama was unmoved, touching the earth to call it to be a witness to his resolve. Defeated, Mara and his hosts departed.

Enlightenment: now he turned his focus inward and entered a meditative trance. He ascended through levels of ever deepening awareness, until he could perceive with perfect clarity the true nature of the human condition. During the portion of the night traditionally called the First Watch, from evening until midnight, Gautama perceived his own previous lifetimes. He observed his long passage from rebirth to death to another rebirth and so on, a continuous journey of suffering. During the Second Watch (from midnight until four in the morning) he acquired the “divine eye,” the ability to perceive the deaths and rebirths of all living beings. Nowhere in this world was there any safety, nowhere an escape from death. During the Third Watch, Gautama discovered the Four Noble Truths, the perfect summation of the human condition and the means for transcending it. By discovering the Four Noble truths, Gautama had attained enlightenment, and thus had won salvation. Now Gautama had become the Buddha, the Awakened One.

In a state of perfect tranquility and infinite wisdom, he was forever freed from the sufferings of the human condition. He was tempted to leave his body and pass once and for all into Nirvana, the state of eternal bliss that is ultimate salvation. His depth of compassion, however, compelled him to remain in the world and to share his discoveries with his fellow humans.

The Buddha wondered, to whom should he offer his teachings? His five former companions would perhaps understand them, he thought, and so he set off to find them. When the five first saw Gautama, they decided to ignore him, convinced he was no longer worthy of their company because he had abandoned asceticism. But his spiritual presence overcame their intentions. Soon they sat listening as the Buddha, perfectly calm and radiant in his wisdom, set forth the momentous

First Sermon, preached at the famous Deer Park near the city of Benares. He taught the doctrines of the Middle Way and the Four Noble Truths. Gradually the five mendicants grasped his teachings and attained enlightenment, thereby becoming arhats (saints). Thus the Buddha had gained his first followers. Buddhism as a religious tradition was born.

The Buddhist community, or sangha, was formed, consisting of men and women. The sangha was carefully organized, with specific roles for monks, nuns, and laypeople. For the three months of the monsoon season, the entire sangha remained together in retreat. During the remaining nine months, the Buddha and his followers traveled about the land teaching.

At the age of eighty, in about 483 B.C. the Buddha became seriously ill after eating a meal of spoiled food. Amid a gathering of monks and nuns, Gautama spoke his final words: “All the constituents of being are transitory; work out your salvation with diligence”. After ascending through the stages of meditation to a state of perfect tranquility, Gautama died, passing forever into nirvana.

The Dharma: Buddhist teachings

The teachings or Dharma are in some respects difficult to understand. They are born not of mental reflection but of insight gained through a profound meditative experience. Thus full understanding of Buddhist teachings requires an equal degree of insight gained directly through meditation. Gautama himself questioned whether anyone would comprehend his teachings, and all along he seems to have advocated Buddhism only for the few who considered themselves fit for the task. Buddhism does not depend on a revelation form the divine for its truths. Buddhist truths were discovered through the inward reflections of man, and are t herefore potentially understandable for anyone. Buddhism emphasizes the development of wisdom, or insight into the human condition. Buddhism is thus the most psychologically oriented of all the great religions.

Individuals and their destiny

Buddhist teachings focus on the predicament of individuals and their destiny. This focus contributes greatly to the simple aspect of the teachings, for it confines their subject matter to one thing, the individual. Everything the Buddha discovered is discoverable in oneself. The difficult aspect of the teachings lies mainly in this paradox: to examine completely the inner realm of self leads to the discovery that the self does not exist.

v Three marks of existence: No self (anatta), Impermanence and Suffering.

a. No self (anatta)

It means there is no ultimate reality within, no essence underlying existence, no eternal substratum that is truly real, enduring beyond the present moment. This paradox, central to Buddhist teachings, can thus be summarized: the essence of Buddhism is, there is no essence.

Les us try to draw on the simple aspect of Buddhism – that it is based on the insights of a mere human being – to gain understanding of the doctrine of anatta. Consider your own situation. Where were you ten years ago? It may be tempting to answer, “primary school”, or this or that place. But the Buddha would answer that “you” simply did not exist ten years ago. The “you” that exists now is the result of a long sequence of change. And you continue to change, literally from moment to moment.

b. Impermanence (Anicca)

It indicates that there is constantly changing. For example: often we speak of a river flowing. The Buddha, always insistent on the precision of speech, would correct us. It is not really the river that is flowing; rather, the flowing is the river. A river is a dynamic process, not a static entity. We may thing we see a river, a real and unchanging thing, but the river is merely an appearance – in actuality, a river is an ongoing flow, a constant sequence of change. The same understanding applies to the self. It appears that the self is real and unchanging, but it too is an ongoing flow – of thoughts, perceptions, fears, hopes, and so on – that is constantly changing.

c. Suffering (Dukkha)

It is a natural result of anicca and anatta. We will consider dukka in more detail in our discussion of the Four Noble Truths.

Buddhist Rebirth.

Buddhism denies the existence of a self, the question of what is reborn is important? In an attempt to explain this issue, Buddhism also turns to analogies. For examples, if a flame is passed from one candle to another, is the second candle burning with the same flame as the first? A flame, like a river, is not a static entity, but a dynamic process. It is an ever changing bundle of energy, and the passage from one candle to another is, most precisely, a transference of energy. The same can be said of rebirth from one body to the next. It is the transference of a bundle of energy, which is patterned according to one’s Karma.

Karma: Buddhist morality and personal identity. Karma functions hand in hand with samsara, in that the nature of one’s rebirth depends on the status of one’s karma. Indeed, because Buddhism denies the transference of any self or soul, personal identity depends entirely on karma. When an individual dies, his or her karma continues on its particular trajectory, as it were, eventually bringing about rebirth. At conception the new person is possessed of this particular status brought on by the karma of the previous life. Because karma is constantly affected by the moral adequacy of one’s actions, morality is of central concern for all Buddhists. The moral life requires observance of the five precepts:

1. Do not take life.

2. Do not take what is not given.

3. Do not engage in sensuous misconduct.

4. Do not use false speech.

5. Do not drink intoxicants.

The five precepts apply to all Buddhists. The following precepts are added for monks and nuns:

6. Do not eat after noon.

7. Do not watch dancing or shows.

8. Do not use garlands, perfumes, or ornaments.

9. Do not use a high or soft bed.

10. Do not accept gold or silver.

The emphasis in Buddhist morality is on intention. The degree to which an act is immoral depends on the individual’s intention to commit the act, rather than on the actual outcome.

v The Four Noble Truths

1. To live is to suffer.

2. Suffering is caused by desire

3. Suffering can be brought to cessation.

4. The solution to suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path.

a) To live is to suffer (Dukkha)

Dukkha is translated variously as “suffering,” “frustration,” “dislocation,” or “discomfort,” to name only a few possibilities. The word originally referred to disjointedness, as a wheel not perfectly centered on its axle, or a bone slightly ajar in its socket. Generally speaking, to assert that life is dukkha is to imply that things are not quite as they should be, but are somehow out of joint and in need of repair.

That life is dukkha is obvious to anyone who is experiencing pain, be it physical or emotional. When we hurt or are ill, even to a slight degree, it is all too clear that things could be better. But what about the good times, when health and contentment prevail? What about those moments when we feel a deep happiness and yearn that life could continue this way forever? The problem, the Buddha would say, is that such happiness will not continue. Human life is finite, and all our experiences are of limited duration. Life’s best times hasten to their end. The ordinary times, even if not hampered by illness or injury, are never quite as good as they could be.

In this First Sermon, the Buddha provided a practical list of specific life experiences during which suffering is most readily apparent. He began by citing stages of the life process: birth, old age, disease, and death. Birth entails suffering simply because it marks the beginning of life in human form, another round of existence in samsara. Recall that among the Four Passing Sights that prompted Gautama to leave his palace life were an old man, a diseased man, and a corpse. All of life’s experiences are of finite duration, and we are constantly bombarded by opportunities to become attached. Indeed, the Buddha concluded in his First Sermon that human life itself, by its very nature, is unavoidably wrapped up in dukkha. Bodies, personalities, thoughts – all are finite, all are constantly changing. All are subject to dukkha.

b) Suffering is caused by desire:

Ø Determination of the Cause: Tanha: Buddha did not stop here, abandoned to the hopelessness of the diseased human condition. Instead he proceeded to determine its cause. He identified the second noble truth as tanha, which is translated variously as “desire,” “thirst,” or “craving.” Just as dukkha is seemingly unavoidable, so too is tanha, its cause. How can an individual refrain from desiring her or his own fulfillment? The Buddha himself would likely answer that a person cannot refrain from such desire. Individuals are destined to be selfish; tanha is an unavoidable aspect of being an individual. He taught the doctrine of anatta, no-self. That which we regard as our “self,” our individuality, is not part of any ultimate reality. We are in fact changing from moment to moment. Yet we imagine that we exist as individuals, each of us unique and endowed with a self that is real and abiding and significant. But this is a falsehood. It is also another form of attachment. Attached to our false idea of being an individual self, we tend to care for ourselves diligently, all the while only adding fuel to the fire of tanha, and tightening the grip of dukkha.

c) Suffering can be brought to cessation.

d) The solution to suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path:

The Noble Eightfold Path encompasses all aspects of life. In keeping with the doctrine of the Middle Way, though, the Noble Eightfold Path sets forth a life of moderation, not of extreme religious practices. Also, the eight steps constitute ongoing practices, not stages to be mastered and then left behind.

1. Right views. Learn the content of the Buddha’s teachings, especially the Four Noble Truths.

2. Right intentions. Abandon the evil attitudes of greed, hatred, and delusion. Nurture the good attitudes of generosity, friendship, and insight.

3. Right speech. Avoid vocal wrong deeds such as gossip, lying, abusive talk, and idle talk.

4. Right conduct. Obey the Five Precepts, or ten for monks and nuns.

5. Right livelihood. Abstain from occupations that harm living beings, such as selling weapons, selling liquor, butchering, hunting, or being a soldier.

6. Right effort. Maintain mental alertness so as to control the effect of the senses, and to discriminate between wise and unwise mental activity.

7. Right mindfulness. Through careful attention to helpful topics, develop the mental focus needed for meditation.

8. Right meditation. Ascend through the four levels of trance ultimately reaching a point of perfect tranquility, in which the sense of individual existence ha passed away. This is the state of nirvana.

Together the eight steps embrace the primary focal points of Buddhist training: wisdom (1 and 2), morality (3, 4, and 5), and concentration (6, 7, and 8). Though all three focal points are essential, the heart of Buddhist practice lies in concentration, and specifically in the practice of meditation. The Buddha’s primary teachings derive from his own meditative experience; their truths can be fully understood only when an individual attains the same level of insight through meditation.

Enlightenment and Nirvana

To follow the steps of the Eightfold path to its end is to reach nirvana. Just for the Buddha, though, final nirvana awaits the death of the body. In the meantime the life of the arhat (the saint who has become awakened) is forever transformed, having experienced a foretaste of the final nirvana.

All Buddists look forward to the same experience of salvation as that of their model, Gautama the Buddha. Buddhas are distinct from their followers, however, in that they do not need a model to provide teachings leading to their awakening. Buddas are able to accomplish this on their own. Gautama the Buddha, then though merely human and not above his followers in terms of the ultimate experience of salvation, has a special status.

Compassion: The enlightened Arhat

The arhat is enlightened, fully aware of the truth of the Buddha’s teachings. With this perfect wisdom, the arhat is now free from the imprisonment of tanha, and thus free from dukkha. The arhat has fully realized the truth of the doctrine of annata, or no-self, and has let go of any sense of individual existence. Still engaged in the affairs of this world but no longer attached to them, the arhat is perfectly compassionate toward all living things.

With the inward experience of enlightenment, the outward virtues of compassion, friendliness, joy, and evenmindedness are simultaneously perfect. Although the focus of Buddhist teachings is mainly on the perfection of one’s inner nature, the development of socially oriented virtues is also essential.

The ideal of compassion is especially emphasized. It is vividly illustrated in Buddhist stories, many of which depict the Buddha in former lives. One such story, originally told by Gautama, is presented here as retold by storyteller Rafe Martin:

Once, long, long ago, the Buddha came to life as a noble prince named Mahasattva, in a land where the country of Nepal exists today. One day, when he was grown, he went walking in a wild forest with his two older brothers. The land was dry and the leaves brittle. The sky seemed alight with flames.

Suddenly, they saw a tigress. The brothers turned to flee, but the tigress stumbled and fell. She was starving, and her cubs were starving too. She eyed her cubs miserably and, in that dark glance, the prince sensed her long months of hunger and pain. He saw, too, that unless she found food soon, she might even be driven to devour her own cubs. He was moved to compassion by the extreme hardness of their lives.

“What, after all, is this life for?” he thought. Stepping forward, he calmly removed his outer garments and lay down before her. He tore his skin with stone and let the starving tigress smell the blood. Mahasattva’s brothers fled.

Hungrily, the tigress devoured the prince’s body and chewed the bones. She and her cubs lived on, and for many years, the forest was filled with a golden light. Centuries later, a mighty king raises a pillar of carved stone on this spot, and pilgrims still go there to make offerings even today. Deeds of compassion live forever.

This extreme example of compassion is fitting for the Buddha, who presents a role model for all Buddhist ideals. This story also illustrates that it takes many lifetimes to nurture the degree of compassion suitable for Buddha.

Nirvana

When the life of the arhat, characterized by perfect compassion, ends, he or she enters into the state called nirvana. The word nirvana literally means “blowing out.” The life energy of the arhat is “blown out” upon the passage into nirvana. Having extinguished all selfish desire, including desire for continued existence, the arhat has attained freedom from samsara. To describe the state of nirvana precisely has always been impossible for Buddhists to do. Nirvana cannot be understood until it is experienced. It is as difficult to understand nirvana as it would be for an unborn child to understand life outside the womb. Those still in samsara have never experienced anything that can even approximate the experience of nirvana. The most that can be said is that nirvana is the total cessation of suffering, and thus is absolute peace.

But if nirvana is total cessation, does the arhat experience “life after death”? Because enlightenment is precisely the abandonment of one’s sense of individual existence, who (or what) is left to experience the absolute peace of nirvana? The Buddha specifically refused to say whether a person exists or does not exist in nirvana. He only insisted that nirvana is the cessation of suffering. And this, together with the Buddha’s radiant happiness born of his enlightenment, suggest that if anything is experienced in rirvana, it is indescribably joyful.

Three Rafts to Cross the River: Divisions of Buddhism

Buddhists often invoke the crossing of a river as an analogy of the quest for salvation. On this side is the realm of samsara, the ordinary world of suffering. On the farther shore lifes nirvana, impossible to know until it is experienced, but beckoning all Buddists as their final destiny of absolute peace. The process of crossing the river is the task of religion. And so Buddhism thinks of itself as raft, a means for crossing.

In fact, over the centuries Buddhism has divided into three great rafts, or “vehicles” (yanas): Theravada, also referred to by the somewhat derisive name of Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle); Mahayan (the Great Vehicle); and Vajrayana (the Vehicle of the Diamond).

Theravada: “The Way of the Elders”

Theravada, means “the way of the Elders” it follows the earliest texts, and thus tends to agree with the original teachings of the Buddha. Theravada regards the Buddha first and foremost as he who experienced enlightenment and then taught others how to accomplish the same. The Buddha is forever beyond the reach of humans, having passed into the eternal peace of nirvana. The teachings of Buddhism, not the figure of the Buddha, are central.

And so Theravada focuses on the teachings: the cultivation of wisdom through knowing the Four Noble Truth, and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, especially meditation. The final aim, of course, is to enter nirvana. Those who succeed are the arhats, which for Theravada are the ideal types whom all strive to imitate (much as saints are the ideal types in Catholicism).

Theravada’s focus on meditation has led naturally to an emphasis on monostic life, because monks and nus, unlike the laity, have sufficient time for meditating. This emphasis has resulted in a religious hierarchy in most Theravada regions, such that the roles of laity and of monks and nuns are differentiated. Even among the ordained, the roles differ. Monks, who outnumber nuns by more than ten to one, have always held the most prominent position within Theravada Buddhism. It is also notable that in some Theravadin countries, it is common for men to entre a monastery only temporarily. A term as a monk lasting for at least three months is seen as a required step toward becoming an adult.

Mahayana: “The Great Vehicle”

By naming themselves the Great Vehicle, Mahayana Buddhists are only in part asserting their superiority over Theravada Buddhists, whom they named Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle). Mahayana is indeed the largest division of Buddhism, claiming well over half the world’s Buddhists. Today Mahayana is the dominant form of Buddhism in China, Korea, and Japan. But the name also indicates something of the nature of Mahayana. Whereas Theravada emphasizes the individual’s path of meditation (and hence can suffice with a lesser vehicle, or raft), Mahayana is Buddhism for the masses.

For one thing, rather than concentrating on the Buddha’s teachings, Mahayana focuses on the Buddha himself, celebrating him as a divine savior. This has potent popular appeal because it opens the doors to religious devotion and prayer. Rather than depending on the cultivation of wisdom through meditation on difficult teachings, this for of Buddhism offers salvation through the infinite grace of the compassionate Buddha.

And Mahayana does not stop with Gautama the Buddha, but recognizes the salvific grace of all the Buddhas of the past. More important, Mahayana reveres bodhisattvas. In its most general definition bodhisattvas are those who are dedicated to attaining enlightenment. They are “Buddhas in the making.” More specifically, the term bodhisattva is used to describe persons who are capable of entering into nirvana but, motivated by compassion, stop short of this goal so as to help others achieve it. Mahayana accepts these definitions but adds another in which bodhisattvas take on mythical qualities. These bodhisattvas exist beyond the earthly realm and are believed to dwell in one of the Buddhist heavens, from which they provide divine assistance to those who worship them. Owing to the infinite depth of their compassion, the mythical bodhisattvas are believed to transfer merit of their karma to their devotees. On occasion they appear in the world as human beings. Several bodhisattvas are prominent in Mahayana, including Maitreya, whom Buddhists expect some day to be reborn into the world as the next Buddha.

For Mahayana Buddhists, the bodhisattva, rather than the arhat, is the ideal type. And compassion, which is perfectly embodied by the bodhisattvas, is the supreme virtue, regarded more highly even than wisdom. Mahayana Buddhists see Gautama’s decision to preach the Dharma rather than enter immediately into nirvana, as proof for the primacy of compassion. They look to the bodhisattvas as embodiments of compassion, because the bodhisattvas have vowed that they will wait to enter nirvana so that they may assist others, even until “the last blade of grass” becomes enlightened.

Vajrayana: Fighting Fire with Fire

When Mahayana Buddhists elevated the figure of the Buddha to that of divine savior, the Buddha was depicted holding the vajra, a diamond scepter. The Vehicle of the Diamond bears this name as a result of its unique application of Buddhist teachings, resembling in their energetic rigor the strength and clarity of a diamond.

Vajrayana comprises but a small minority of Buddhists, and yet it is of special interest. This is due both to its unique form and to the situation of its homeland, Tibet. Now claimed as a part of the people’s Republic of China. Tibet has endured much religious persecution by China’s communist government. Many Vajrayana Buddhists have been killed; many others are now living in exile in India and elsewhere. But for centuries the high mountain plateaus of Tibet sheltered Vahrayana from the rest of the world. The relatively pristine state of this form of Buddhism has also attracted special interest.

The uniqueness of Vajrayana centers on the notion of fighting fire with fire. In general, Buddhist teachings prescribe shutting off the energy of desire to accomplish the cessation of suffering. Vijrayana attempts to propel the individual toward enlightenment. Prominent among the practices used to achieve this are mandalas, patterned icons that visually excite; mudras, choreographed hand movements that draw on the energies of movement; and Mantras, resonating chants that harness the spiritual potency of sound. Together these practices invoke sound, movement, and sign, capitalizing on the sensual energies as a way to achieve the goal of spiritual enhancement.

Another of Vajrayana’s unique practices involves the harnessing of one of the life’s basic energies, that of sexuality. Whereas most Buddhists target sexual desire as being especially problematic and in need of being controlled, Vajrayana regards sex as being all the more potent as an energy for furthering spiritual progress. In a carefully guarded set of practices known as Tantrism, some Vajrayana Buddhists engage in ritualized sex. Far from being sex merely for its own sake (it is not motivated by a desire for pleasure), Tantrism is regulated by masters, and is engaged in solely for the purpose of enhancing spiritual energies.

Another important feature of Vajrayana is institution of lamas, a hierarchy of clergy headed by the Dalai Lama. The Present Dalai Lama, who won the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts on behalf of regaining Tibetan freedom, is the fourteenth in a direct line of succession. But rather than being based on descent by natural birth, this line of succession is through rebirth. Originating with the incarnation of prominent bodhisattva, the lineage is believed to continue through the reincarnation of one Dalai Lama into the next.

The Enduring Wisdom of the Buddha.

Each raft of Buddhism charts its own course, but ultimately reaches the same shore, delivering its adherents into nirvana. A famous Buddhist mantra invokes the end of the crossing: “Gone, gone, gone beyond, completely gone beyond, enlightenment hail!” Nirvana, the ultimate goal of all Buddhists, is beyond every experience of this life. In typically paradoxical fashion, it is even beyond Buddhism itself. The raft that has ferried the adherent across the river to the shore of salvation must then be abandoned lest the journey remain unfinished.

In other ways, too, Buddhism is paradoxical. It is indeed a unique case among the world’s religions. Buddhism focuses on the spiritual condition of the human being, not on the supremacy of a divinity. Even more uniquely, it denies the existence of a self, or soul.

Buddhism relies instead of features that are strikingly akin to the ways of the modern, scientific view of life. In fact, modern scientific theory has much to say that is in close agreement with the observations of Gautama the Buddha regarding the nature both of the universe and of the human psyche.

This is not an accident, for the Buddha skilled physician that he was, preceded scientifically-empirically investigating the nature of what it is to be human. People suffer. A life of moderation, as exemplified by the doctrine of the Middle Way, helps to alleviate suffering. And meditation, the Buddha’s favored method of therapy, nurtures the wisdom that leads to transcendence.

3.3. Jainism and Sikhism (group work)

4. RELIGIONS ORIGINATING EAST ASIA (FOR GROUP WORK).

4.1. Confucianism

4.2. Taoism

4.3. Shinto

5. RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN THE MIDDLE EAST.

5.1. Judaism

Judaism is not only the adherence to particular doctrines and observances, but primarily living in the spiritual order of the Jewish people, the living in the Jews of the past and with the Jews of the present…. It is not a doctrine, an idea, a faith, but the covenant between God and the people.

The religion of Judaism can be summarized in several ways. Abraham Joshua Heschel, a renowned Jewish holy man of the twentieth century, refers to Judaism as the covenant between God and the people. Heschel emphasizes the role of the Jewish people, both past and present.

Covenant. This is an agreement established long ago between God and the ancient Israelites, first through Abraham and later through Moses, God spoke to Moses on Mount Sinai, promising that if the Israelites would keep the covenant by obeying the Law (Torah), they would be God’s “treasured possession,” and “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19: 5-6).

Because of the covenant, the Jews are understood to be God’s Chosen people, as a status that carries serious responsibilities. The Hewish people are forever challenged to live as befits a “holy nation”. Moreover, the Hews are challenged to live as a “nation” or people. The Covenant is between God and the people: thus Judaism places great emphasis on group identity. In modern times this emphasis has given rise to new challenge, for not all Jews are adherents of the religion of Judaism. It is therefore necessary to distinguish between “religious” (or observant”) Jews, and “cultural” (or “nonobservant”) Jews.

Heschel remarks that Judaism is “the living in the Hews of the past and with the Hews of the present.” These two notions refer to other, related ways of summarizing Judaism. First, Judaism is the interpretation of the history of the Jewish people, “the Jews of the past.” Second, Judaism is the sanctification of the life, the means through which Jews live with “Jews of the present.”

Judaism’s Central; Teachings: On God and Torah.

The first step in elaborating on our summary of Judaism is to consider God and the revelation of the divine will to the Chosen People. This revelation, or Torah, is recorded in the Hebrew Bible and in writings of the rabbis of the early centuries of the Common Era.

Mast of the Universe: Judaism’s God.

The deep and constant reverence that observant Jews show toward their God is evident in their avoidance of pronouncing the divine name, it is considered too holy to be spoken by human beings. The name is written, however, and appears in the Hebrew equivalents of the letters YHWH. When Jews come across the name while reading the Bible, they say “Lord” instead of pronouncing the actual name. Often God is referred to by other phrases, too, the most common being Master of the Universe.

God has a personal name, and God is thought to be a personal being, intimately involved in the welfare of humans and the rest of the created world. But God is also transcendent of creation, and is infinitely powerful, all knowing, and beyond the limits of space and time. And God is believed to be the one and only God. In Judaism’s basic theological statement, called the Shema (Hebrew for “hear”), the uniqueness of God is set forth: “Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord alone” (Deuteronomy 6:4). The Shema is recited at least twice daily, in morning and evening prayer.

Torah: Revelation of God’s Will

Torah is among the most important terms in Judaism. It literally means “instruction” and refers to the will of God as it is revealed to humankind. It is also loosely translated as “law”; on a practical level, the revelation of God’s will sets forth the Law that guides proper human conduct. Finally, in a more specific and more common usage, Torah refers to the first five books of the Bible, which are traditionally believed to have been revealed directly by God to Moses. The five books of the Torah are the central statement of the religions laws of Judaism.

In its more general sense, as revelation, Torah is set forth in several ways, each one the extension of another. With God in the center, the divine will is revealed outward in a series of concentric circles, like the rings of a tree trunk. The first ring consists of the “written Torah,” the word of God contained in the Hebrew Bible.

Written Torah: The Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible contains three major parts: the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings. In Hebrew the words Torah, Prophets, and Writings begin with T, N, and K, respectively. The Bible itself is conveniently referred to as the Tanakh (from T-N-K).

The contents of the Hebrew Bible are also found in the Christian Old Testament, but the book are named and ordered somewhat differently. Of course for Judaism the Tanakh is in no sense an “Old Testament”. Nothing new has ever superseded it, and it remains the vital centre of Jewish understanding.

TheTorah. It contains the first five books of the Bible. It is also called the Pentateuch, a Greek term meaning “five books”. The Torah holds a position of prominence that sets it apart from the rest of the Tanakh. According to tradition, God revealed its contents once and for all time at Mount Sinai to Moses, who is regarded as the Torah’s author. The Torah, the Law, stands forever as Judaism’s central code of holiness. It is thought to contain 613 specific laws, the most famous being the Ten Commandments, which are set forth in Exodus, chapter 20. Every synagogue (building of Jewish worship) contains a scroll of the entire Torah, kept in a vessel called an ark.

The prophets. Is composed of the books that include both historical accounts of ancient Israel and proclamation of the will of God spoken by those called to serve as God’s mouthpieces. The Greek term prophet literally means “one who speaks for”.

The Hebrew prophets who spoke for God are among the world’s most striking religious figures. With charisma and courage, they attempted to keep Israel on its religious course through times of severe difficulty.

The prophet is called to speak for God, a role that is illustrated clearly at the beginning of the Book of Jeremiah. Jeremiah was one of the most important prophets. The word of the LORD came to me: Before I created you in the womb, I selected you; Before you were born, I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet concerning the nations (Jeremiah 1:4-5).

Jeremiah protests, insisting that he, a mere boy, is not capable of speaking for God. But God assures Jeremiah that he will succeed, promising to be with him. Then comes the central moment: The LORD put out his hand and touched my mouth, and the LORD said to me: Herewith I put My words into your mouth. (Jeremiah 1:9).

The writings. The books that comprises the Writings are higly diverse in both content and literary form. With the poetry of the Psalms, the wisdom literature of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, the short stories such as Esther and Ruth, and the historical accounts like Chronicles, just to name some examples, the Writings contribute much to the overall richness of the Bible. For the most part, the Writings were composed later than the rest of the Tanakh.

Mishnah and Talmud: Teachings of the Rabbis.

The Bible is complemented by the vast and ingenious wealth of religious teachings of the “oral Torah”. This is the material taught and transmitted by Judaism’s great rabbis of antiquity. Their teachings were eventually written down, most notably in the Mishnah and later in the Talmud, among other texts.

The written revelation of God’s will would always remain the central teaching, but he varying circumstances of life demanded that the religious laws be elaborated on. The written Torah did not always say enough; it also could not directly address the continually changing situations to the Jews in a world that was always changing. The oral Torah continues the task begun by the written Torah.

Moving outward from the Bible, the next ring of interpretation is the Mishnah. It was written down in about 200 B.C., but it contains teachings that were formulated and transmitted orally by the rabbis of the previous four centuries. Soon after it was written, the Mishnah came to be regarded as a sacred text, like the Bible. It remains the starting point for rabbinic study of the oral Torah.

The Talmud forms the next ring of interpretation, and it is highly significant. A great modern scholar of Judaism has stated: If the Bible is the cornerstone of Judaism, then the Talmud is the central pillar, soaring up from the foundations and supporting the entire spiritual and intellectual edifice”.

The Talmud is based directly on the Mishnah. Small portions of the Mishnah are cited, followed by intricate commentary, usually page after page of it. The rabbis support their arguments by citing biblical passages. The Talmud presents a grand scheme of interpretation of God’s will, blending together the oral and written forms of Torah.

The Talmud itself continues to be interpreted for centuries. The most important commentary, by rabbis who lived as late as the middle ages, is included in modern editions. And in a real sense, the Talmud is still being interpreted; the concentric rings of the tree trunk are still growing outward. Modern Jews, like those of ancient times, strive for deeper understanding of God’s will. This process of interpretation is itself a meaningful act of worship, occupying a significant place in the ongoing sanctification of life.

Blessings and Tribulations: The History of the Chosen People.

Earlier we noted that Judaism can be summarized as the interpretation of the history of the Jewish people. Who are the Jewish people, and why is their history of such vital importance?

Originally the Jews were the descendants of the ancient Israelites (who are also known as Hebrews). Around the time of the Exile and following, they became known as Jews, and their religion became known as Judaism, because their country was Judah. Conversion to Judaism was quite common in ancient times, and continues in the present day. No single Jewish “race” of genetically related people exists. It is more accurate to think of the Jews as an ethnic group that shares a common history and religion.

History has great significance for Judaism. This is due to a basic religious premise: God is believed to be providential, or directly involved in history. God knows what is happening and provides for the chosen people. History for the Jews is therefore a record of God’s will as manifested in the events of the world.

This explains why Judaism itself can be thought of as the interpretation of Jewish history. God is loving, all-knowing, all powerful, and providential. The Jews are the Chosen People of God. But as the Chosen People, the Jews must live up to their end of the covenantal agreement. History provides a means of measuring how adequately the Jews have done this. To the extent that they honor the covenant, God will reward them as a “treasured possession” (Exodus 19:6).

Classical Judaism

Roman armies destroyed the Second Jerusalem Temple in 70 A.C. This was both an unprecedented catastrophe and a new opportunity for Judaism. The Pharisees, who focused on the study of Torah rather than on the rituals observed at the Temple, emerged from this event with their religious ways intact. With the impetus provided by Pharisaic Judaism, and with the compilation of the Mishnah and the Talmud over the next few centuries, classical Judaism was established. It remains the standard for Jews down to modern times.

The classical period itself stretches from the end of the first century A.C through the seventh century, when Muslim forces conquered Palestine and the surrounding area. The Jews of the classical period were forced to live under the threat of Roman political oppression, which sometimes had violent consequences. Several decades after the Jewish War and the destruction of the Temple in 70 A.C, the Jews waged a second large-scale revolt against the Romans. This ended in 135 A.C, when the victorious Romans leveled the city of Jerusalem and set forth a decree forbidding Jews to inhabit the region of Palestine. The Jews were now technically in exile from their homeland.

However, neither exile nor oppression was new to the Jewish people. Through the centuries their ancestors had endured oppression by foreign rulers: Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. In the classical period and beyond, Jews encountered new threats: Christianity arose in the fourth century to become the official religion of the Roman Empire. A few centuries later, many Jews found themselves living under Muslim rule.

As for exile, the Jews of the classical period could look to the Babylonian Exile (587-538 B.C) as a precedent. Those exiles were eventually allowed to return to their homeland. This event was highly significant, instilling among all Jews hope for a return from exile to a situation of peace and prosperity. However, the Babylonian Exile also taught the Jews how to survive without returning home. Following the Exile many remained in Babylon or elsewhere in Persia, and in Egypt. For the first time, there were Jews living away from their homeland who maintained their religious identity. This situation, known as the Diaspora (or Dispersion), continued throughout Jewish history. Indeed the vast majority of Jews have lived in the Diaspora, from the classical period to the 20th century.

Medieval Judaism

The medieval period of Judaism spans from the eighth to the middle of the eighteenth centuries. Scattered through a large Diaspora, Jews lived under various political and social conditions.

Jewish life in the Medieval Period

For the most part, Jews lived under the rule of Muslim (in Africa, Spain, and the Near East) and Christians (in most of Europe). Under Muslim rule, Jews were generally free to practice their own religion and to conduct their own courts of law, and they were assured security of life and property. There were occasional exceptions to these principles, and Jews were required to pay certain taxes to the Muslim rulers. But overall, the Jewish people fared quite well and established a large middle class.

Conditions under Christian rulers tended to vary considerable over the centuries. In the early centuries of the medieval period, European Jews emerged as successful moneylenders. (Church laws strongly discouraged Christians from participating in this profession.) This helped Europe’s changing economy, and some Christian respected and appreciated the Jews with whom they had dealings. But the economic success of the Jews led to resentment among many Christians. Christians also felt a religious form of resentment toward the Jews, for Christians tended to regard them as “sons of the crucifiers” who intentionally rejected Christ.

Resentment led to open and violent persecution. Beginning in the twelfth century, Jews were commonly the victims of blood libels, which were false accusations that they had ritually murdered Christian children. Jews were also blamed for causing the Black Death, the devastating bubonic plague that killed about on-third of Europe’s population in the mid-fourteenth century. For this, entire Jewish populations were massacred, mostly by wandering bands of Christian penitents. Meanwhile the Spanish Inquisition also targeted Jews, putting many to death.

To escape persecution, many Jews migrated eastward, especially to Poland, which welcomed them. Here Jews enjoyed a large degree of governmental autonomy, and the people lived in relative safety and prosperity. Polish rabbis made remarkable intellectual achievements. But even here the threat of persecution loomed. In 1648 a Cossack rebellion against Poland resulted in the brutal massacre of about one-fourth of its Jewish population.

The medieval period was clearly a time of great tribulation for many Jews. But we must not lose sight of the havens of relative peace and prosperity in which some Jews lived. Muslim Spain, home of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides and of the origins of Jewish mysticism, was one such haven.

Jewish Philosophy: Maimonides

Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) is representative of a great number of Jewish philosophers, teachers, and scriptural masters who contributed to the ongoing process of interpreting Torah. The tree trunk, with its concentric rings of interpretation, kept growing outward.

Maimonides applied the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle to the biblical tradition, fashioning a new and much debated Jewish theology. His most famous book, The Guide for the Perplexed, has stood through the ages as one of Judaims’s most influential and challenging philosophical works.

In addition, Maimonides also contributed Judaism’s most famous statement of beliefs, thirteen principles that set forth the backbone of Jewish theology:

1. The belief in God’s existence

2. The belief in His Unity

3. The belief in His incorporeality

4. The belief in His timelessness

5. The belief that He is approachable through prayer

6. The belief in prophecy

7. The belief in the superiority of Moses to all other prophets

8. The belief in the revelation of the Law, and that the Law as contained in the Pentateuch is that revealed by Moses

9. The belief in the immutability of the Law

10. The belief in Divine providence

11. The belief in Divine justice

12. The belief in the coming of the Messiah

13. The belief in the resurrection and human immortality.

The kabbalah: Jewish Mysticism

While Jewish philosophy emphasizes reason, Jewish mysticism, or Kabbalah, teaches that God can best be known with the heart, through love. The mystics acknowledge the ultimate transcendence of God, but stress the immanence of God: God can be found by looking inward.

The most famous text of Jewish mysticism is the Zohar, probably written in the thirteenth century Spain by Moses de Leon. The Zohar incorporates rich symbolism based on numbers and esoteric language, and teaches that Torah can be interpreted on different levels, each revealing hidden meanings that bring one closer to God. Thus, though God is regarded as the “Infinite”, transcending the fallen world of humanity, the mystic can come to know God through love and understanding of the hidden truth.

Though in many ways it is an alternative to traditional Judaism, the Kabbalah does not abandon the basic forms of Jewish practice. Kabbalists observe the commandments, and are renowned for their highly ethical behavior.

Judaism in the Modern Period

Great changes in Europe civilization began to occur in the eighteenth century. The period known as the Enlightenment, or Age of Reason, gave rise to new social theories asserting the equality of all. Monarchies began to be replaced by governments that were based on rule by the people.

These changes greatly affected religions, too, including Judaism. This section covers a wide variety of reactions to the new challenges of this period, which gave rise to different forms of modern Judaism.

Hasidism

Hasidism (from Hasid, meaning “pious” arose in the eighteenth century in Eastern Europe. It draws from some of the mystical teachings of the Kabbalist tradition, holding that God is immanent and known first and foremost with the heart. Hasidism emphasizes personal relationships with God and the community, rather than study of the Torah and strict observance of the commandments.

The center of each Hasidic community is the leadership of the Zaddik, a holy man who is believed to have an especially close relationship with God. Through the teachings and mere presence of the zaddik, Hasidic Jews are able to move closer to God.

Zionism

Zionism originally referred to a movement arising in the late 19th C. that was committed to the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland (Zion is a biblical name for Jerusalem). Now that the modern nation of Israel, established in 1948, does exist, Zionism refers generally to the support of Israel.

As we have seen throughout the centuries Jews faced persecution, a phenomenon known as anti-Semitism. Despite the new ideals of social equality that arose with the Enlightenment, some Jews were convinced that the only way to ensure their safety was to have their own nation. Events of anti-Semitism in the 20th, most tragically the Holocaust, have confirmed the Zionist conviction regarding the need for a Jewish state.

The Holocaust.

Of all the tribulations suffered by the Chosen People through the centuries, the Holocaust is surely the most horrific. Sometimes called Shoah (Hebrew for “mass destruction”), the Holocaust refers to the persecution of Jews by German Nazis from 1938 – 1945. Culminating in the use of highly efficient extermination camps, the Holocaust resulted in the murder of nearly six million Jews.

Along with the tragic consequences of such an immense loss of life, the Holocaust has confronted Judaism with religious challenges. Until this event, Jews could generally make sense of their difficult history. There had been tribulations, of course. But some reasoned that perhaps they were the result of the Jews’ own failure to live up to the Covenant. Or perhaps God would right the wrongs by sending the Messiah to bring justice to the Jews. But in the face of the Holocaust, in which one-third of the Jewish people were senselessly murdered, such answers no long make sense to many Jews. How cold God have allowed such a horrible thing to happen?

Jews have responded to these challenges in a variety of ways. Some maintain that they deserved even this as punishment for their sins – most specifically, the sin of abandoning the ways of traditional Judaism. Others contend that the Holocaust can only mean that God has broken the Covenant. Another response, and a very prominent one, is Zionism, the ongoing support of the state of Israel.

The State of Israel

With the rise of the Zionist movement at the end of the 19th C, increasing numbers of Jews immigrated to Palestine. The Hebrew language was restored; the land was nurtured into fields fit for productive agriculture; and farming communities and cities were built. In 1948, in the wake of the Holocaust and with the sympathetic support of most of the world, Israel was granted statehood. Its political and cultural achievements since that time continue to be a source of pride for Jews. For the first time in over two millennia, the Jews have a national homeland.

Today the state of Israel provides a great deal of unity for Judaism. Most Jews, whether Israelis or not (less than half of the world’s Jews live in Israel), and whether religiously observant or not, regard Israel as their earthly center and common cause. Vast financial and political support have been provided to the state, especially by North American Jews.

Along with this unity over the state of Israel, divisive problems persist. For one thing, the Palestinians also call this land their home. How is it to be shared? Deep divisions also exist between secular and religious Israel Jews. The task of reconciling such secular ideals as Western democracy with the ways of traditional Judaism poses a great challenge to Israel.

The Sanctification of life: The Way of Torah

We have seen that Judaism can be summarized as the sanctification of life. Life is sanctified through the moment-to-moment practice of observing Torah. Judaism is far more concerned with correct practice than with correct belief (and thus differs considerable from Christianity in this respect). Judaism places little emphasis on theology or statements of belief. Rather than focusing on what God is, Judaism focuses on how to worship God. Traditionally, therefore, a Jew is not a “believer” so much as “observer of the commandments”.

Daily life

Traditionally, all aspects of Jewish life are guided by regulations derived from Torah, which categorizes acts as permitted or forbidden, obliged or free, and holy or profane. Torah thus defines both worship and ethical conduct.

Ethics

Observing Torah requires not only worshiping God but also leading an ethical life. In the Mishnah an esteemed rabbi puts it this way: “By three things is the world sustained: by the Law, by the [Temple] service, and by deeds of loving-kindness. As for deeds of loving kindness, we need only note the prominence of the Ten Commandments in God’s revelation Mount Sinai to realize the central significance of ethics. In addition to these famous ethical requirements (not to kill, steal etc), Judaism teaches many more. For example, Jews are obligated to give help to the needy, to give food and shelter to guests, and to visit the sick. The traditional emphasis of ethics is reflected in the charitable and philanthropic work done by the Jewish community today.

Daily Worship Through Prayer

The predominant form of daily worship is prayer, which is mandatory only for males ages thirteen and older. Women are traditionally excused because of their household responsibilities (done in accordance with Torah, and so are an integral part of the sanctification of life). However, in recent times more women have been participating in prayer. In any event, males alone are required to wear certain ritual accessories. One is the yarmulke, or skullcap. Another is a set of small boxes containing biblical passages. These are secured to the forehead and to the left arm so as to be near the mind and the heart, the two primary means of serving God. A third accessory is the prayer shawl, which can be drawn over the head for privacy.

Prayers are said at least three times daily: in the morning, the afternoon, and the evening. They include a variety of traditional passages from the Bible and other authoritative sources. Prayers are usually recited at home, but are also frequently said in public at the synagogue. Home and synagogue are the two centers of Jewish worship.

The Home and the Synagogue

The home is the most common place for Jewish worship, and it is the center of Jewish social life, which more than anything else focuses on the family. Rules based in Torah govern family relationships, so that children honor their parents, and parents care diligently for their children.

Jewish homes are often easy to identify. On the outside, just to the right of the door, many Jews attach the mezuzah, a small container with a scroll on which is written the Shema, “Hear, O Israel! The LORD is our God, the Lord alone” (Deuteronomy 6:4).

The social and religious center of the home is the dinner table. Along with festive meals in celebration of holy days and the Sabbath, ordinary meals, too, are important occasions. Traditionally, all the food must be kosher (“proper” according to Torah), meaning that certain dietary regulations apply. Pork, for example, is prohibited, as is the mixing of meat and dairy products.

In addition to the home, Jewish worship is commonly carried out in the synagogue (which Reform Judaism calls the temple). Since the Babylonian Exile (in the 6th C. BC, synagogues have been centers for prayer, study, and communal fellowship. While the building designs vary, all synagogues contain a scroll of the five books of the Torah, which are encased in a box called an ark.

Rabbis are the leaders of the synagogues. The precise role of the rabbi varies among the different forms of Judaism. In general, “rabbi” simply refers to one who has mastered the sacred writings of Judaism, mainly the Bible and the Talmud. In other words the role of the rabbi differs from that of the Christian priest or minister because it does not imply such a formal distinction in status.

Sabbath

One of the Ten Commandments states, “Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy” (Exodus 20:8). This the Jews have done through the centuries with both reverence and festive joy. The Sabbath begins at sunset on Friday and lasts until sunset on Saturday. It is both the religious and the social high point of the week.

The Sabbath is patterned after the seventh day of creation, on which God rested from labor and beheld the glory of the created world. Along with avoiding labor Jews are required to refrain from many sorts of usual activities, such as driving, answering the phone, and turning on an electric light, which would violate the biblical law prohibiting lighting a fire on the Sabbath.

Along with being a day of rest, though, the Sabbath is also a day of worship and celebration. Jews devote part of the time to Torah study and Sabbath services, both at home and at synagogue. They enjoy festive meals of special foods that have been prepared before the onset of the Sabbath. It is a time of fellowship with family and other Jews of the community, and is joyful celebratory.

The Annual Calendar of Holy Days

The calendar of holy days is a fundamental basis of Jewish life. These annual observances serve to ensure both the unity of the Jews and the continuity of their religious tradition. The Jewish calendar includes some sixteen important holy days. The first day of each month, marked by the new moon, is also observed. The most important holy days are: Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and Passover.

Rosh Hashanah

Rosh Hashanah, the festival of the New Year, occurs in early fall and is observed for two days. Rosh Hashanah is a religious event involving both celebration and serious contemplation. God’s creation of the world is celebrated, but this is accompanied by individual reflection on the deeds of the past year and the need for redemption. The ram’s horn, or shofar, is blown on Rosh Hashanah as a means of reminding the Jews of these spiritual deeds. Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the “Days of Awe,” a ten-day period of reflection.

Rosh Hashanah is also a time to reinforce social relationships. Festive meals are held for family and friends. Visits to the graves of family members reinforce bonds with the deceased, as well.

Yom Kippur

The Days of Awe conclude on the tenth day of the New Year with Yom Kippur, the “Day of Atonement,” Judaism’s most important holy day.

Deeply personal and solemn, Yom Kippur emphasizes repentance through confession of sin. The day is observed through prayer and through abstaining from food, drink, and work. Services are held in the synagogue, during which prayers like the following are recited:

O my God, before I was formed, I was nothing. Now that I have been formed, it is as though I had not been formed, for I am dust in my life, more so after death. Behold I am before You like a vessel filled with shame and confusion. May it be Your will….that I may no more sin, and forgive the sins I have already committed in Your abundant compassion.

Passover.

The Festival of Passover occurs early in the spring and lasts for eight days. It commemorates the Exodus of the Jews from bondage in Egypt, and is a time of great mirth and celebration.

The high point of the festival is the Seder feast, which features a recitation, called the Haggadah, of the events of the Exodus as well as a meal of traditional foods that symbolize these events. Through out the eight days of Passover, only unleavened bread (matzo) is to be eaten. The matzo is symbolic of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the forefathers of the Jewish people.

The Passover clearly illustrates a characteristic common to most of Judaism’s holy days: the events of Jewish history are commemorated as having religious significance.

Rites of Passage

Like most other religions, Judaism prescribes rites of passage, or ritual events marking life’s major changes. Rites of passage serve two primary purposes. First, they reflect the inevitable changes of life, while at the same time providing a sense of permanence through their unchanging rituals and the deeply rooted values they set forth. Second, rites of passage help to define the responsibilities of each stage of life, and to teach the means for advancing through them with appropriate maturity.

Birth and Naming

The rite of passage marking the birth of a child involves the giving of a name and, for boys, circumcision. The ceremony of circumcision takes place on the eighth day of life, usually at the home of the parents. In the Book of Genesis, circumcision is the sign established by God when entering into the Covenant with Abraham. This ritual therefore signifies entrance into the Jewish community of descendants of Abraham. Naming of the child also takes place during the ceremony of circumcision. Girls are usually named at the synagogue during a Sabbath service.

Coming of age

The primary ritual marking the coming of age, that point at which a Jewish child takes on the religious responsibilities of an adult, is called bar mitzvah (daughter of the commandment) for girls. At this point the young person becomes responsible for observing the detailed practices of daily Jewish life.

Bar mitzvah takes place on a boy’s thirteenth birthday. During the special service, the boy is a participant for the first time. He performs such tasks as reading from the Torah. Most Jewish girls celebrate bat mitzvah in a manner similar to a bar mitzvah. Bat mitzvah, however, is not observed in Orthodox Judaism.

Recently confirmation has become common among non-Orthodox Jews as a second means of observing the coming of age. Both girls and boys are confirmed, usually at age sixteen or seventeen.

Marriage

For Judaism, marriage is the ideal human relationship. Patterned after the relationship between Adam and Eve, marriage celebrates God’s creation by symbolically recreating the Garden of Eden. Marriage is a most joyous and festive occasion, and is almost always celebrated in a traditional manner, even by Jews who are otherwise not traditional.

Several symbols and events highlight the marriage ceremony. The bride and groom stand beneath the huppah, or bridal canopy, which creates a special, sacred space. Seven blessings, including the following, are read over a cup of wine:

Grant perfect joy to these loving companions, as You did to the first man and woman in the Garden of Eden. Praised are You, O Lord, who grants the joy of Bride and groom.

The ceremony concludes when the groom breaks a wine glass beneath his foot. This ancient custom may have originated as a symbol of the destruction of the two temples in Jerusalem. Today it serves to remind those present that marriage, like every aspect of life, will involve some difficulties and pain along with joy.

Death and Mourning

Death, the ultimate transition, poses unique challenges to the family of the deceased and to the community. Judaism deals with these challenges by carefully regulating the rituals and mourning activities that follow a death.

Several distinct stages of mourning are prescribed. The first stage lasts from death to burial, which preferably occurs on the day of death. When family members first learn of the death, they rip their clothes, and recite verses that acknowledge God as the “true judge”. The mourners are restricted from certain activities, such as shaving and wearing leather. They are also relieved of many of the normal religious requirements, including the regular schedule of daily prayer. This allows them to attend to their grief and to special responsibilities, such as making sure the body is ritually washed and clothed in a shroud. It is buried in a plain wooden coffin.

A second stage of mourning begins after burial with the recital of the kaddish, a prayer of mourning. This stage lasts for seven days. During this time community members visit the family. They discuss the merits of the deceased, and recite special prayers and psalms.

A third stage lasts until thirty days after burial. Most normal activities are resumed, but social gatherings and celebrations are avoided. If the deceased is one’s parent, a fourth stage of mourning follows, this one lasting until the first anniversary of the death. During this stage the mourners avoid their usual seats at the synagogue, and they recite the kaddish during services. On the anniversary of the death, the mourners again recite the kaddish.

Conclusion: Tradition of the Chosen People

Judaism is summarized by noting three ways: first, it is the Covenant between God and the Chosen People; second, it is the interpretation of the history of the Jewish people; and third, it is the sanctification of life. Judaism is a tradition, the tradition of the Chosen people. Judaism is “primarily living in the spiritual order of the Jewish people, the living in the Jews of the past and with the Jews of the present”.

Judaism is among the smallest of the world’s major religions. Many Jews today are gravely concerned that their numbers are decreasing, that the tradition is weakening, and that the Jewish people are losing their sense of identity.

Christianity

Meaning and beginnings of Christianity

A Christian is a person who believes in Jesus Christ and acknowledges him as Lord and savior. He was given the name Jesus to denote the object of his mission – to ‘save’. For Christians it is important to live life as closely as possible to his teachings as set out in the New Testament.

Nearly one third of the world’s population of about one and a half billion people is Christian, making Christianity the world’s largest religion. Christianity is the dominant tradition in America, Europe and Australia and has got significant followings in Asia and Africa as well. Christianity has various sects because of different interpretation of Jesus’ teachings, but they all share three things in common: Christ, creed and Church.

The centrality of Jesus to the Christian faith is clearly indicated in the name of this religious tradition, which started off as a small Jewish sect in Palestine about two thousand and ten years ago. Christians call themselves ‘Christians’ because they regard themselves as followers of ‘Christ’, which is one of the titles associated with Jesus. ‘Christos’ is the Greek translation of the Hebrew word ‘Messiah’, originally a Jewish term meaning, literally, ‘anointed’. Some Jewish contemporaries of Jesus were anticipating an anointed leader, perhaps a royal or priestly figure, who would initiate a political and/or a religious resurgence. They were greatly shocked when he was condemned to death as a rebel against the Roman Empire. However, they were re-awakened when news spread about his resurrection and that he would soon return on the Day of Judgment.

5.1.1. Historical background

5.1.1.1. Judaism and Christianity:

The events of the birth of Jesus (as the Messiah) were anticipated in the Old Testament and the teaching of Judaism (the religion of the Jews). Jesus was born a Jew, and he remained a practicing Jew his entire life. The twelve Apostles and other associates of Jesus were all Jews. Paul, the Apostle to the Gentiles non-Jews was also a Jew. Christianity emerged in a Jewish context, and the earliest Christians would have viewed the narrative of Jesus’ life and teachings from a Jewish perspective.

5.1.1.2. Jesus and Judaism

Jesus Christ cannot be understood without understanding Judaism, the religion where he was born, brought up and finally killed. His life and teachings are greatly influenced by Judaism. However, Christianity is not Judaism neither the reverse of it. Jesus promoted an exclusive monotheism which demands great loyalty from its followers to one God alone. However, Christians hold that the life, death and resurrection of Jesus had brought about a new phase in the relationship between God and humanity. Thus, Jewish scriptures, although they had a vital contextualizing part to play, were relegated to the status of ‘Old’ Testament; they were superseded, in Christian eyes, by the ‘New’ Testament.

Christians believe that Jesus advocated the observance of Jewish laws, not necessarily by the letter, but in spirit. However, this is not a clear cut. In Acts we find some debate about which aspects of Judaism were to be observed (such as circumcision and diet) under this dispensation, and there remains considerable flexibility in Christian attitudes and actions in relation to the Old Testament. Although some Christians still observe at least a version of the dietary rules and Sabbath observances clearly specified there, the majority of Christians choose to ignore them, arguing that the ‘new covenant’ does not require such observance. Nevertheless, the New Testament is an integral part of Christian worship in most denominations, and many will cite Leviticus and other Old Testament passages as decisive arguments in matters of morality.

5.1.1.3. Jesus Christ

The name Christ comes from ‘Christos’ the Greek translation of the Hebrew word ‘Messiah’, originally a Jewish term meaning, literally, ‘anointed’. Some Jewish contemporaries of Jesus were anticipating an anointed leader, perhaps a royal or priestly figure, who would initiate a political and or/religious resurgence. Jesus stands out as special because he was a spiritual Messiah sent to restore the faith of Israel and lead the spread of God’s covenant to the rest of the world. Most Jews rejected him, so he told his disciples to take his message to the Gentiles (non-Jews). So Christians believe that those individuals of whatever race who accept Jesus as the Messiah are the ‘New Israel’; the new ‘Chosen People’ of God’s covenant.

The most widely known textual sources about Jesus are the four Gospels in the New Testament i.e. Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Jesus is the central figure throughout the entire Gospels. Jesus is also talked about in the Book of Acts of the Apostles. The Book of Acts starts by affirming that Jesus appeared to his apostles after his resurrection and taught them. It describes his ascension into heaven, and gives an account of the coming of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost plus the activities of the early Church. Jesus is also mentioned indirectly in the Old Testament for instance in Isaiah 7:14; “Look, the virgin is with child and will give birth to a son they will call him ‘Immanuel’ - God is with us.

Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judaea around 4 BC. He is linked with the family line of the great Jewish King David. He was born to a village carpenter, Joseph and Mary his wife. He was brought up in Nazareth in Galilee (Palestine), and was known as Jesus of Nazareth, his home town. Nothing extraordinary is said of Jesus during his childhood and youth, not until the age of 30 when he started his ministry.

By the time of Jesus Christ’s birth, the Jews, his people were under the oppressive rule of the Romans. Rome ruled Palestine as a protectorate and hence controlled it through the king and local chiefs. Roman officers practiced a lot of injustices in their rule – such as slavery, infanticide, child prostitution, etc. Hence, because of such a background many Jews yearned for a Messiah who would come to free their society from such injustices as they were never a major power.

5.1.1.4. Jesus life and teachings

The work of Jesus is known as his ministry. It began after He was baptized by John the Baptist in the river Jordan at the age of 30, and lasted for 3 years. His central mission was to announce the coming of the Kingdom of God and to get into this Kingdom a person must repent and believe in the word of God. The Kingdom is open to all; tax collectors, prostitutes, the poor, and everyone as long as they have faith. He welcomes those who usually thought to be beyond salvation. His message was all about who God was and what God was doing. It was Good News of God’s overwhelming generosity, forgiveness and compassion.

Jesus presented the kingdom in distinctive parables, many of which drew on typical aspects of Galilean life – rocky wheat fields, hated tax collectors, great debt problems, hiring labourers, and so on. He also acted-out signs of liberation to God’s Kingdom in healings and exorcisms, raising the dead to life and in his own practice of table worship with prostitutes and tax collectors he showed the breadth of God’s welcome.

Jesus’ ministry was also about ethical transformation, which was linked with the coming of God’s reign. For God’s reign was intended only for the righteous, Jesus taught that the need for ethical transformation was urgent. The heart of Jesus’ ethical teachings can be found in his radical commandment of love – “You have heard that it was said, you shall love your neighbour and hate your enemy. But I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be children of your Father in heaven.” (Matt. 5:43-45). Along with Jesus’ teaching on ethical transformation, he also taught with his actions i.e. he practiced what he preached. He focused his ministry on the lower classes of the society.

When Jesus attracted many people to himself the Jewish leaders started to realize that his ministry and message could be politically dangerous. Thus at the end of the third year of his preaching, he was condemned and crucified by the Roman authorities. His death was a fulfillment of his mission. He resurrected after three days, and for Christians, the resurrection of Jesus is the greatest miracle and the sign of God’s action in Jesus. It is the act of God that fulfils the scriptures, and which gives authority for believing in the living Christ. At the end of the world Jesus will come back to carry out final judgment and bring God’s eternal reign in peace and justice.

A few weeks after the resurrection of Jesus, his disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit (Pentecost Day). They began to preach the Good News boldly and proclaimed his resurrection. The more the authority tried to silence them through persecutions the more they preached the word of God. This was the birth of the Christian Church.

5.1.2. Founding and growth of the church

5.1.2.1. The four gospels:

The word ‘Gospel’ comes from the Old English words for ‘good news’, which is a translation of the Greek ‘evangelion’. The Gospel writers are referred to as ‘evangelists’; they are spreading the ‘good news’ about the Messiah. The Christian message is often called the ‘Gospel’ which means ‘Good News’ regarding to Jesus Christ. The central figure in the gospels is Jesus Christ. The gospels emphasize certain aspects of the life and teachings of Jesus, and his crucifixion and resurrection. His life and teachings were first memorized by his followers until it was eventually put in writing some years after his death. There are four gospels; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Why were the Gospels written?

· To teach new converts and train new leaders – As the old Christians and leaders died, a new generation would have to take over; written Gospels would show the way forward.

· To clarify doctrine – There was a need to correct any misconceptions about points of doctrine.

· For worship – They were written to meet the need for readings during worship.

· To deal with hostility of the Jews – It was hoped that a written account would help to win over Jews who so far had been unconverted.

· To win converts to Christianity – It was necessary to record the oral tradition based on testimony about the life of Christ before it got lost or distorted to enable easy conversion of new converts.

The Gospel of Mark:

This was probably written between 60 and 70 AD in Rome, where the author heard it directly from Peter, one of the Apostles of Jesus. It is the shortest Gospel and is ascribed to John Mark. It is thought that he wrote for non-Jewish readership and on that note he may have served as Peter’s interpreter, translating Aramaic into Greek which was the language of the immigrant population in Rome. Mark’s Gospel concentrates on the deeds of Jesus rather than his works e.g. the healing miracles he performed and exorcism of devils.

The Gospel of Matthew:

This was written in Syria, by Matthew, a Jewish apostle, and an ex-tax collector, around ten years after Mark’s Gospel. Matthew shows Jesus as the long expected Messiah, and sets out to show how he fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies concerning the Messiah. So his Gospel is a link between the Old Testament and New Testament. The Jews expected a political leader to free them from the Romans, so Matthew emphasizes that Jesus’ kingdom was a heavenly one and not earthly. There is a lot of teaching about the Kingdom of Heaven (God).

The Gospel of Luke:

This is the fullest life story of Jesus, and was written around 85 AD. It was written by Luke, the Physician, who was Paul’s companion on his missionary journey. Luke’s Gospel shows the Gospel message as there for all people: sinners, non-Jews, women, the poor and outcasts i.e. Jesus came for all people of all kinds. Jesus reaches out to help people in all segments of society. Luke emphasizes the point of leading a perfect life by portraying Jesus as a role model of the perfect way to live. He wrote it for non-Jews. Luke knew Mark and worked with him – Mark’s Gospel is one of his sources in addition to oral tradition.

The Gospel of John:

This was the last Gospel to be written, probably around 90 AD. It was written by John, one of the twelve disciples. This is very different from the first three Gospels, it adds to their accounts. The main theme of this Gospel is Jesus as Messiah and son of God. The focal point of the Gospel of St. John is the doctrine of the incarnation – that God’s son became fully human in Jesus Christ while remaining fully divine. The emphasis is on interpreting and showing the meaning of what took place and not on the facts of Jesus’ life. John selects signs from Jesus’ many miracles to show who he was.

5.1.2.2. The early church

The word Church comes from a Greek word ‘ekklesia’, meaning ‘assembly’. It also refers to ‘the people of God’ or ‘Christians’. It is also described as the ‘body of Christ’ which points out an element of identity between Christ and his Church.

The Christian church started officially on the event of Pentecost. Pentecost was a Jewish harvest festival 50 days after the Passover. The Jews went from all over the Roman Empire to Jerusalem to celebrate this feast. The disciples were in the upstairs room praying, they heard the sound of a powerful rushing wind, and little flames of fire appeared and came down the head of each disciple. They received the gift of tongues so that they could spread the Gospel to people of every race. Filled with the Holy Spirit, Peter went out and spoke to the crowd and by the end of the day 3000 people had come forward for baptism. This was the birth of the Christian Church. The baptized accepted Jesus as the Lord.

Life of the early Christians/Church:

Early Christians gathered regularly for prayer, worship, sharing the word of God - scriptures, and to break bread (Eucharist) as a commemoration of the death and resurrection of Jesus and also to confess their sins. The new converts were supposed to undergo an initiation ritual of baptism which was a symbol of the spiritual purity they attained through accepting Christ. Baptism was by emersion and anointing and laying of hands to invoke the Holy Spirit on the candidate. They shared their goods as brothers and sisters in Christ. They used to gather in their homes since they had no church structures at the moment.

The early Church also developed a structure of leadership which consisted of the Bishops – who were seen as successors to Jesus’ Apostles, the Presbyters – who were elders who assisted the bishops and the Deacons – who were servants and also assistants to the Bishops. These leaders helped the Bishop in a variety of tasks – administering the Eucharist, financial and disciplinary matters, linking the Bishop with the congregation.

5.1.2.3. Problems faced by the early church

· The Church was discriminative in that the pre-condition for one to become a Christian he/she was to first become a Jew and then a Christian. However this was later solved by Paul.

· During the celebration of the Eucharist or Agape meal, widows and other marginalized people didn’t receive equal share with the rest of the people.

· The early Christians experienced repeated persecutions – many were martyred, others imprisoned, women who had consecrated their lives to God’s service were raped to death by the army. The martyrdom was of various forms – some were thrown to wild animals to be torn to pieces, others were forced to sit on heated iron chairs, others were thrown from the top of buildings, others were beaten tom death, others were starved to death.

· In 303 AD, Emperor Diocletian ordered that all Holy Books be surrendered to authorities, all Churches be destroyed and Christian meetings be banned in Phrygia and the entire Christian population were locked in their Church and burned alive.

· As Christianity expanded, different teachings started to crop up, this led to heresies (contradicting beliefs) and schism (division). Schisms included; Donatism, Nestorianism, Arianism, Gnoticism, each held its own religious beliefs.

Why were the Christians persecuted?

They refused to display loyalty toward the Roman state by refusing to worship the emperor’s guardian spirit which the Romans were obliged to worship. Christians were monotheistic so they could not worship the emperor, hence, were persecuted and they chose to die as martyrs or witnesses rather than violate their Christian convictions.

Due to the steady Church’s steady growth, the authorities perceived it as a serious threat and launched several waves of official persecution to terminate it. Generally, the Roman populace (inhabitants) held a negative attitude towards Christians.

Traditional pagans were faced with economic problems and disasters and hence blamed it all on the Christians for their refusal to worship the ancient gods. Matters got worse when a fire in Rome which burned for six days until a large part of the city was destroyed. The Emperor Nero accused Christians for this and arrested a big number of Christians.

Reasons that made Christianity to survive:

· Persecutions strengthened the early Christians – they were ready to die as martyrs or witnesses than violate their Christian convictions; as Tertullian put it, that the blood of the martyr was the seed of the Church or Christianity. Several people got converted because of the martyrs’ courage e.g. the prison chief who got converted by the example of Perpetua and Felicity. And wherever they scattered they preached the Gospel.

· Their strong faith in Christ and the help of the Holy Spirit made them strong. That’s why many underwent martyrdom, imprisonment, without despair.

· In 312 Emperor Constantine, of the Roman Empire won a crucial victory that enabled him to be the uncontested emperor. Constantine had got a vision of the cross of Jesus prior to the battle, so he credited the victory to the intervention of Christ and eventually he was baptized a Christian. He therefore declared Christianity a state religion: “concerning the Christians … all who choose that religion are to be permitted to continue therein, without any difficulty or hindrance, and are not be in any way troubled or molested”.

That marked the end of persecutions.

5.1.3. The Christian beliefs and teachings

Although Christianity has many divisions, they hold some common beliefs and teachings which include the following:

5.1.3.1. Holy Bible

It is the primary source of authority in Christianity. It is regarded as a library of history, contains Old Testament and New Testament. The Old Testament contains 39 books of Jewish scripture, however, the Catholic Bible consists 7 extra books. The New Testament consists of 27 books. Christians believe the Bible to be inspired by God in that He inspired the writers to write, hence, God is the author of the Bible.

5.1.3.2. Trinity

Christians believe that God shows Himself to humankind in three ways – Father, son (Jesus Christ) and Holy Spirit. This is known as the Trinity. It does not mean that there are three Gods: Christianity believes that there is only one God. The Father sent the son, Jesus, to earth, and after the Ascension, the Holy Spirit has continued to work for God in human affairs.

Everything in existence has been created by God the Father; He cares for the whole of creation, especially humankind, whom He made responsible to care for it. On the other hand, God lived on earth as Jesus (God the son), the promised Messiah who would die on the cross to save humankind from sin, as prophesied in the OT. He was conceived of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. After death on the cross he rose from the dead, lives with the Father, and will return on the Day of Judgment as judge of all people and to set up God’s Kingdom on earth. God the Spirit lives in Christians to bring guidance, strength, courage and inspiration.

5.1.3.3. Communion of saints and forgiveness of sins

The communion of saints is made up of all the saints who, having died and gone to Heaven, are in a position to intercede on behalf of others. Sins are forgiven if people repent and change their ways. A saint is someone whose life on earth was exceptionally holy. However, Protestantism does not believe in intercession.

5.1.3.4. Heaven, Purgatory and Hell

Christians believe that Heaven is where Jesus is ‘sitting at the right hand of God’. This is where the righteous will go as their reward when they die. Those who go to heaven have ‘life everlasting’ and ‘an eternal weight of glory’. Catholics believe that all baptized souls who have died without repentance for venial sins (i.e. sins that do not destroy the relationship with God) go to purgatory. It is a place for those in receipt of grace, and who are therefore saved, but who are not yet fit to enter heaven. However, Protestantism rejects the doctrine of purgatory for it is without scriptural foundation.

According to traditional Christian theology, hell is the place regarded as the state of utter and irrevocable damnation for the soul after death. In the Bible hell is given three different words: ‘Sheol’ – it is the abode of the wicked; ‘Hades’ – it is a prison; ‘Gehenna’ – it is the place of the lost.

5.1.3.5. The Day of Judgment/The last judgment

This is the sentence that will be passed on our actions at the last day. The judge is Jesus Christ as mediator; all judgment is committed to him. All humans will be judged without a single exception. The righteous will be permitted to sit at the right hand of God while the wicked will sit at the left and after judgment they will be sent to hell to suffer the everlasting fire.

5.1.3.6. The creeds

A creed is a formal statement of religious belief. It is a confession of faith. It is an authoritative statement of certain articles considered essential to Christianity. It is a rule of faith whose purpose is to preserve true teaching or doctrine and to combat false teaching or heresy. The teachings/doctrines mentioned in the creed include; the doctrine of the Trinity and the doctrine of the Person of Christ.

5.1.4. Major divisions in Christianity

Great Schism (1054):

This was a historic crisis which resulted in the division between ‘Catholic’ and ‘Orthodox’ Christianity which took place in 1054. During the reign of Emperor Constantine, he established an eastern capital, Constantinople, which became a second centre of the Church, along with Rome. The distance between Constantinople and Rome caused communication problems, which was intensified by a language barrier – the Eastern Church used Greek, while the Church in Rome used Latin. The two Churches also lost political unity when the western part of the Roman Empire fell yet the eastern part survived.

In addition to these problems, the Eastern Church refused to accept the authority of the Pope in Rome. The final break of the Church occurred in 1054 when Pope Leo IX excommunicated the leader of the Greek (Eastern) Church, who in turn excommunicated the Pope. This created the existence of two independent Churches: the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Western Church of Rome (Roman Catholic).

5.1.4.1. The Roman Catholic Tradition

This is the largest single Christian grouping. Roman Catholicism today accounts for more than half of the world’s Christian population i.e. at least out of ten Christians six are Catholics. Roman Catholics or simply Catholics trace their lineal descent from the Western Catholic Church of the Middle Ages. Their leader is the Pope, or the Bishop of Rome, who is seen as the successor of St. Peter, whom Jesus gave the keys of the Kingdom of God. This is called the Apostolic Succession. The Pope has the power to proclaim new doctrines; he is regarded as infallible because Catholics believe that he is speaking with God’s authority. The Pope is the highest authority in the Church and below him are Bishops, Priests, etc.

Along with Orthodox Churches, Roman Catholicism recognizes seven sacraments: Baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, marriage, ordination, penance, and anointing of the sick and at the centre of the sacramental system, they recognize the mass. The sacraments function as rites of passage, marking divisions between one stage of life and the next.

5.1.4.2. The Orthodox Tradition

The Eastern Orthodox Churches are located mainly in Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Eastern Mediterranean countries – Greece, Cyprus and Turkey. The patriarch of Constantinople is the head of the Orthodox Church, but he has no special doctrinal authority since authority belongs to the whole Church. The church has a rich liturgical life and an icon (statues/holy pictures) based spirituality. These icons represent the New Testament and early Christian saints.

In regard to marriage and priesthood, bishops are not married and one must have been a priest first. A man must be 30 years old before he becomes a priest and cannot be married afterwards, although he can marry before. Married priests cannot become bishops. If a married priest’s wife dies, he cannot marry again unless he abandons his vows and gives up the priesthood.

5.1.4.3. The Churches of reformation

A good number of Christian groups broke off the Catholic Church during reformation period. This is regarded as the second great schism after that of 1054, generally known as the reformation. It took place in the 16^th Century and its legacy was Protestantism. Churches of reformation include the following:

5.1.4.3.1. Protestantism (Martin Luther & John Calvin)

Protestantism gets its name from the protest against the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1517, a German monk, Martin Luther, put forward 95 theses or points of protest for discussion about corruption in the Church, especially the sale of ‘indulgencies’. An indulgence was given by doing penance to gain the forgiveness of sin. This involved fasting, wearing sackcloth and going on pilgrimages. The problem arose when Christians were allowed to buy them to cut out the need for penance.

Luther said that forgiveness and salvation or justification came through faith and prayer. He also said that the Bible, being the Word of God, was the only source of authority for Christians; not the Church. Luther farther rejected the Church’s beliefs, celibacy, masses for the dead, the powers of the Pope, the sacraments except baptism and Holy Eucharist (the Lord’s Supper). He was then excommunicated from the Church by the Pope. Many people liked his ideas and by the time of his death in 1546, North Germany, Denmark and Sweden had developed a form of Christianity called Lutheranism.

Jean Calvin in Switzerland and John Knox in Scotland took up Luther’s ideas on the Bible’s authority. Calvin taught that our knowledge of God comes from His word, but only if He chooses to make it known. He taught that salvation is only possible through God’s free grace, but the saved are predetermined by God plus those who will not be saved. These Protestant Churches were far removed from the Roman Church, having no images and subordinating tradition to the authority of the Bible.

5.1.4.3.2. The Church of England/Anglican Church

This was formed because King Henry VIII (1509-1547) wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon, a widow to his brother Arthur, who was barren so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. This divorce was not allowed by the Pope, so Henry made himself head of the Church in England in 1534, he arrested and deported many of Lutheran preachers. Catholics were persecuted and forced to abandon their faith. The Anglican Church claims to be both Catholic and Reformed. It has adhered to the Catholic threefold ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons, but with a conservatively reformed liturgy: the Book of Common Prayer of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556).

5.1.4.4. Nonconformist or free Churches

These began because many people thought that the Church of England did not go far enough in its move away from the Catholic Church. They wanted a ‘pure’ Church and so were called ‘Puritans’. They were called free or nonconformists because they were and still are Protestants who did not conform to the established Church of England. The main Nonconformist or Free Churches are as follows:

5.1.4.4.1. The Baptist Church/Anabaptists

This Church emerged in the 17^th century. They received their name because they believe that only when a person is old enough to make a conscious commitment to Christ should they be baptized. They reject infant baptism. Their basic doctrine is the discipleship of Jesus which demands an interior conversion and a complete reordering of life. They Church is governed by the Holy Spirit.

5.1.4.4.2. The Quaker (Society of Friends)

This group was founded by John Fox in the 17^th century. They broke away from the Baptists. Fox wanted a return to the faith and simple lifestyle of the early Christians. The name ‘Society of Friends’ arose because Fox wanted his followers to be friends of Christ and of each other. The name ‘Quakers’ comes from a judge who was trying Fox in 1650 and was told by Fox to ‘tremble (quake) at the voice of the Lord’. Quakers believe that religion means to follow personal conviction. The Holy Spirit is the sole inspirer of faith and operates freely without any Church structure. They believe in peaceful resolutions and not through violence or war. They reject sacraments.

5.1.4.4.3. The Presbyterians

These follow the form of Church government laid down by Calvin, the Swiss Protestant Reformer. The Church is governed by Christ and a hierarchy of Church courts. The authority of the Bible is paramount. Worship is centred on Bible readings, a sermon on the readings, hymns and vocal prayer by the minister.

5.1.4.4.4. The salvation Army

It was founded in 1865 by William Booth, a former Methodist. His aim was to take the Gospel to the poor in a healing and helping ministry. It is organized on military lines. It provides food and shelter for the needy, helps ex-prisoners, searches for missing persons and carries out a wide range of other forms of social work.

5.1.4.5. Pentecostal Churches

These appeared in the 20^th century, mainly from USA. They emphasize the role of the Holy Spirit. They preach the Gospel ‘through the fire of the Spirit’. Services are often characterized by speaking in tongues and prophecy. They are of different groups depending on the geographical origin but they share more or less similar characteristics.

5.1.4.6. The African Independent Churches

These are fast growing Churches of black African Christians for whom the black experience is crucial to their self-understanding. They are influenced by liberation theology, charismatic renewal and African tribal religion of their ancestors.

5.1.5. The challenges of Christianity today

There are many divisions or sects of divisions in Christianity, hence, pose challenge to the very definition of what it is to be Christian. Amid this diversity are ongoing calls for unity. However some steps have been taken to create unity among the various Christian groups as follows:

a) Ecumenism – Many of the mainline Christian denominations advocate ecumenism, which is all about the promotion of worldwide Christian unity. The Ecumenical Movement seeks the unity or reconciliation of the various Christian Churches. Church leaders meet from time to time to find shared beliefs and use them as a foundation to look for further unity. The Second Vatican Council organized by the Roman Catholic Church (1962-65) aimed at the restoration of unity among all Christians as one of its principal concerns. It emphasized that Christ the Lord found one Church, when it divides it is as if Christ himself were divided.

b) Enculturation – People living together in a society share culture e.g. language, dress code, foods, feast days, and so on. Someone observing cultural relativism tries to respect all cultures equally. Although only someone living within a group that shares culture can fully understand that culture, cultural relativists believe that outsiders can learn to respect beliefs and practices that they do not share. Today Christians have to come to terms with other faiths. They must adjust to the living presence of people of other faiths as fellow-citizens. Prejudice and discrimination because of skin colour and way of life should be avoided.

Christians and other faiths have attempted to fight these evils by affirming the value of other cultures, and resisting the view that the Western way of life is intrinsically better than any other. It is clear that religion and culture are entwined, and a basic equality of all cultures means the radical equality of all religions. Various faiths should be tolerant with one another – they should advocate cross-cultural understanding. Cultural exchange can provide many benefits for all societies through exchange of ideas and adoption of features of each other.

5.2. Islam

5.2.1. The meaning of Islam

The word, ‘Islam’, in Arabic means ‘submission to Allah – God’. Islam is religious tradition, a civilization and a total way of life. The word ‘muslim’ (small ‘m’) is someone who submits to the will of God in any age or time. And a ‘Muslim’ (capital ‘M’) is one who follows the religion of Muhammad i.e. ‘one who submits’. This submission to God results in peace of mind and soul. As a religion, Islam stands for complete submission to the will of Allah and obedience to His law.

Islam believes that individuals, societies and governments should conform to the will of God. Muslims believe that Islam has the answer to the religious problems and questions that have beset mankind since the beginning. Surah 3.19 in the Qur’an declares, “Truly, religion with Allah is Islam”. Other religions have some elements of ultimate religion but, for the Muslim, Islam contains and corrects them all, thus bringing religion to a climax in Islam. So Muslims see themselves as the people of the point of what religion should be.

Islam is one of the religions founded in the Near East. It is the second most widely practiced religion of the world after Christianity. It is also the fastest growing. The largest numbers of Muslims live in the Middle East, North Africa and Pakistan. In East Africa, they are more concentrated along the East African coastal towns than in the interior.

5.2.2. The historical background of Islam

5.2.2.1. Pre-Islamic life situation

Islam dates from the last ten years of the life of Prophet Muhammad. It began in Mecca around 610 AD. The main religion in Arabia at that time was a form of the old Semitic religion which had shrines to a variety of gods and goddesses in a multitude of places. There was also a wide spread acceptance of a Supreme God (Allah). There were five religious groups:

· Idol worshippers (they were the majority) – they worshipped rocks, stones, sun, moon, stars, and trees.

· Hanif – these were people who turned away from idol worship and longed for the worship of the God of their Patriarch Abraham, they wanted Monotheism. It is from this group that Prophet Muhammad rose.

· The Jews – they were the descendants of Israel (Jacob), Isaac and Abraham and were traders in Medina (Yathrib) and also embraced Jewish religion.

· Christians – were followers of Jesus Christ (Isa).

· Zoroastrians – these were Persians who were well known for trade and also believed in God, the Supreme Being.

Politically, there was no central government but there were many tribes that existed independently where each had a chief as head referred to as a Sheikh or Sayyid. The economic life at the birth of Islam was dictated by the climate (desert life) i.e. nomadic life – Arabs who moved from place to place in search of water and pasture and sedentary life – Arabs who settled in one place. At that time, trade also flourished in Arabia. Socially, there was deterioration of morality resulting into immoral behaviour and practices such as gambling, alcoholism, burying of unwanted babies (girls) who were buried alive, blood feuds (bloody fights), women (naked) dances, selling off girls like property, etc.

The period of Arabia prior to the birth of Islam is referred to as a period of ignorance and darkness (Jahiliyya). It was a period when Arabia was absorbed in religious, economic, political and social turmoil. Therefore, there was an urgent need to rescue the Arabs from this state of despair and degeneration.

5.2.2.2. The Prophet Muhammad and the beginning of Islam

The term/name Muhammad is an Arabic term meaning “the praised one” or “one who praises God most of all” or “praiseworthy”. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 AD, after the death of his father Abdullah ibn Muttalib (Abdullah – means “servant of God”). His mother was called Aminah bint Wahb (Aminah – means “peaceful”), she died when Muhammad was six years old, so he was brought up by his uncle, Abi Talib, in conditions of hardships. Both parents were members of the Hashim clan, a sub-division of the Quraysh tribe which had lately abandoned its nomadic life in the desert and risen to dominate the trading city of Mecca.

From the age of 12, his uncle Abu Talib, a trade merchant, took him with him on his long trading trips, which sometimes lasted for many months. Muhammad first worked as a camel driver, but as his horizons and business acumens expanded, he became known as ‘The Trusted One’ (al-Amin) for being fair in his dealings and honouring his obligations. As a youth, Muhammad was of good conduct, he was virtuous and kind to people. The most important hadith (recorded sayings & deeds of Muhammad) about his early life is about a trip to Syria, where he was recognized by a Christian monk as Shiloh – the non-Jewish Prophet whose coming was foretold in the book of Genesis 49:1-10.

It seems that Muhammad, from an early age, believed himself to be Shiloh, the first and last non-Jew Prophet who would bring the final message and warning to mankind in the ‘last days’ before the end of the world. It may have been for this reason that he became something of a mystic, spending long periods of isolated meditation in the desert. From his early twenties onwards he began to have religious experiences and visions of various sorts, but was on the whole confused by their significance. He is also reported to have become an expert on the Jewish and Christian religions and to have engaged in long religious debates with both monotheists and pagans.

At the age of 25 Muhammad’s social status changed markedly. He had been employed by a wealthy widow, Khadijah, to run her trading interests and after they had prospered, she asked him to marry her. He accepted even though she was 40, and became a person of prominence and wealth. She became his first convert and was also an understanding and supportive wife, hence, they had a happy marriage. However, they had only one surviving daughter, Fatima.

His call to be a Prophet:

At the age of 40, Muhammad received his first revelation during the month of Ramadan in the year 610 AD. He was engaged in one of his regular periods of solitary meditation in a cave known as Hira near the top of Mount Jabal Nur, near Mecca, where he received a visitation from the Archangel Gabriel (Jibreel). The angel told him to ‘recite’ in the name of Allah. He did not, so the angel took him by the throat and repeated the command. He still did not obey, so the angel choked him until he did. This was a start of a series of revelations which are the most important mark of his prophet hood. Muhammad had experienced religious visions before, but this was quite different.

In the remaining 23 years of his life, he received a total of 114 separate revelations which were compiled as the Qur’an (which is Islam’s most important scripture) for recitation after his death. These revelations took place in both Mecca and Medina. Some revelations were written down on palm leaves and animals bones, but the majority, in the tradition of times were memorized. Eventually, he realized that this mission was as the agent of Allah’s message to his generation. Thus, he began his career as a preacher, reformer and prophet.

Response to Muhammad’s mission:

After receiving the first surah of the Qur’an Muhammad acted with enormous caution. He realized the pagan Quraysh rulers would eventually oppose him by force, so for three years he preached privately to the immediate members of his own family. According to tradition his wife Khadijah was the first to accept his prophethood, followed by his cousin Ali and his servant Zayd. Islam first came to the attention of the Quraysh in either 611 or 612 when Muhammad began preaching to the Hashemite keepers of the Ka’abah (a cube-shaped structure in the centre of the grand mosque in Mecca). The Quraysh and some Hashemite elders denounced him as mad, but no action was taken.

At first Islam was seen as just as another money-making cult and Muhammad was encouraged to use the ka’abah alongside the others in a spirit of fair play and toleration. But in 613 AD Muhammad began preaching to the public at large, rejecting all other religions, demanding removal of idols from the ka’abah and therefore threatening trade. Having converted some of the smaller Meccan clans and many individual Christians and Jews, He began to preach to pagan Arabian tribesmen as they arrived to worship. The other Quraysh tribes now moved to silence him. Their first offer was to make him King of Mecca if he stopped preaching. When he refused they punished him by boycotting merchants belonging to his Hashemite clan. This caused some of the Hashemite elders to turn against Muhammad and his followers. They became hostile towards them and later began to persecute them in form of starvation, beatings, imprisonment, verbal attacks, thorns spread on his way, ashes were thrown at him, etc.

When persecutions became severe, Muhammad advised some of his followers to migrate to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) and were given refugee by the Emperor of Abyssinia, Negus. He attempted to convert the Muslims to Christianity, but failed. Negus was nevertheless impressed by their honesty and sincerity. In 619 Muhammad and the Hashemites arrived at a tactical compromise which lifted the trade boycott and allowed him to return to Mecca. After his return to Mecca, his position with his followers in Mecca became more difficult. This was worsened by the death of his wife Khadijah and eventually his uncle Abu Talib. Thus, Muhammad sought support from Yathrib (Medina) the home town of his mother.

In 620 men from Yathrib were moved by the message of Islam and pledged their support to the prophet. They invited him to live in Yathrib, and thus, it became a centre of Islam activity. This migration of the prophet and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib is called ‘Hijra’. And this became the turning point in the early history of Islam because it marks the dawn of a new era and is the official start of the Muslim calendar which was inaugurated by Caliph Umar in 622 AD. In spite of all the oppositions, persecutions and battles fought, Muslims emerged victorious.

Factors which made Islam successful:

In spite of all oppositions, persecutions and battles fought, Islam was able to succeed because of the following factors:

· The Prophet’s character and his teachings, he lived what he preached.

· His revelatory messages – Islam was an Umma (community based on faith), protection of the weak and oppressed, elevation of women’s position in society.

· The Prophet’s wisdom which made tribes from afar to send delegations to Medina to negotiate their submission to the Prophet.

· Settlement of religious differences with the Christians who accepted Muhammad’s political control as they were given freedom to practice their faith.

In 632 AD the Prophet made a “farewell pilgrimage”. This pilgrimage is also called the “Haj of Islam” because God completed His religion for the benefit of humankind and granted to Muslims His total blessings. It is also referred to as the “Haj of Annunciation” since Muhammad had completed his announcement and conveyance to the people God’s message. Three months after the pilgrimage, Muhammad succumbed to fever and died at noon on June 8^th 632 AD, the eleventh year of the Hijra. His death left the Muslim community with a leadership crisis since Muhammad left no successor. The Umma appointed a caliph or successor i.e. Abu Bakr (632-634 AD), followed by Umar Bin Khattab (634-644), followed by Uthman Bin Affan (644-656) and finally followed by Ali Bin Abi Talib (656-661).

5.2.3. The Sources of Islamic Doctrine (Sharia)

These are the sources of reference that guide the Muslim conduct or behaviour. These sources are what regulate the life of Muslims and the Islamic religion.

5.2.3.1. The Holy Qur’an

The word ‘Qur’an’ is Arabic word which means ‘recitation’. It was revealed to Muhammad through angel Gabriel (Jibreel). Muhammad received a total of 114 separate revelations which were compiled as the Qur’an after his death. He himself wrote nothing because he was illiterate so he memorized all the revelations and later declared them publicly to his scribes/secretaries. A year after Muhammad’s death his revelations were collected together by his secretary, Zayd, under the supervision of a committee, shown to many of the Prophet’s companions, and agreed to be accurate.

The Qur’an is understood by Muslims to be the final, the ultimate scripture, that is, it is the last edition of God’s Will. It is the basic religious document for Islam and primary source of Islamic religion and Islamic divine moral conduct. It is the written collection of the revelation to the Prophet Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel (Jibreel) who read it from the heavenly tablet. It is an infallible source of authority for all matters of doctrine, practice and law. It is the principle book of liturgy for Islamic worship – at every time of prayer surah 1 is used as the opener. It is from the Holy Qur’an that Muslims draw their spiritual nourishment. It is also used as a text to the study of the Arabic language.

It is basically divided into three major sections:

· The first part deals with knowledge that contains verses relating to theology.

· The second section deals with moral principles and instructions on human conduct that are meant to guide the Muslim community (Umma) to avoid sinful habits or actions, hence, live a happy life.

· The third section deals with detailed pronouncement of the law, such as the law of inheritance, matters of marriage, economic issues, state matters, punishment for crimes such as adultery, theft, etc.

Structure of the Qur’an:

The Qur’an contains 114 surahs or chapters. It is about the length of the New Testament in the Christian Bible. It begins with a short surah called ‘al Fatihah’, meaning ‘The Opener’, which is in the form of a prayer to Allah for guidance. This is the most frequently recited part of the Qur’an and is used in daily prayers and on all sorts of religious occasions. Each surah has a name derived from something mentioned in it. Each is assigned a heading to either one or other of the cities of Mecca or Medina. The surahs are arranged in order according of length. With the exception of surah 9, every surah starts off ‘Bismillah al rahman, al rahim’ which means “In the name of Allah the compassionate, the Merciful”. Chapter 9 which starts differently, is called “The repentance”

5.2.3.2. The Hadith/Sunna

Hadith is Arabic which means “saying”, “communication”, “story” or “conversation”. The hadith is based on things Muhammad said, did, or approved of in others. On the other hand, Sunna is an Arabic term that refers to a way, a course, a rule, a manner/mode of acting or conduct of life. The Sunna is the custom by which Islamic belief and practice is regulated. The hadith (sayings) record the Sunna, which are the rules of life.

The two terms Hadith and Sunna are used interchangeably as the way of life of the prophet and narrations about his life. The two are collectively referred to as traditions of the prophet. The Hadith were collected and arranged after the death of Prophet Muhammad while the Sunna came into existence along with every injunction that was revealed and was full established by the Prophet himself during his life time.

There are two headings for the Hadith:

· The Prophetic Hadith – these are the sayings of Muhammad which reveal his wisdom and compassion. They concern matters of everyday living.

· The Sacred Hadith – these have authority because they go back through the Prophet to Allah. They are insights that Allah revealed through the Prophet but which are not in the Qur’an. They cover matters of belief and worship.

The Sunna and Hadith supplement the Qur’an as the source of Muslim conduct. They tell Muslims what is required (obligatory), what is recommended (optional) or what is disliked after giving illustrations of the Prophet and his companions. The Sunna is a standard of living which every Muslim should aspire to reach. The Prophet Muhammad is the best guide for Muslims. His words and deeds are a source of inspiration for all Muslims at all times. The Hadith is based on the actions sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, who is regarded as the most competent and most appropriate authority for interpreting the Qur’an.

5.2.3.3. Ijma

Ijma is the consensus of the Muslim community or of its Jurists/scholars or it is a consensus of opinions of Muslim Jurists. Literally, it means “agreement of opinion” by the learned Jurists or Muftis on various Islamic matters to reach certain solutions. The legitimacy/status of the Ijma is found in the Qur’an which exhorts humanity to reflect (surah 2:171), to understand (surah 7:179) and have sense (8:22). These verses show that one should use reason and exercise judgment. The Prophet also supported the use of Ijma. The Ijma began to be used during the life time of the Prophet because it was not possible to refer every case to him. A person who uses juristic reason (ijtihad) is called ‘Mujtahid’. The Ijma has to be taken in light of the holy Qur’an and the Sunna and Hadith of the Prophet.

5.2.3.4. Qiyas

Qiyas literally means “estimation” or “judgment by comparison with another thing”. According to jurists, Qiyas refers to analogical deductions from the first three sources. It is the legal principle introduced in order to derive a logical conclusion of a certain issue that has to do with the welfare of the Muslims. A conclusion is reached basing on the strength of a reason but must be based on the Qur’an, Sunna/Hadith and Ijma. People should always think deeply and use common sense to deduce or reach conclusion.

The conditions under which a Qiyas is accepted are as follows:

· When there is no solution in the Qur’an or the Hadith.

· It must not go against the principles of Islam.

· It must not contradict or go against the contents of the Qur’an or conflict with the traditions of the prophet.

It must be a strict Qiyas that is based on either the Qur’an, Hadith/Sunna and Ijma.

5.2.4. Fundamental articles of Islamic faith (Islamic Beliefs)

Islam has some major/core beliefs as follows:

(a) Belief in Allah:

This is Islam’s basic creed: ‘There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah’. This creed is a contracted form of all the core beliefs of Islam, known collectively by the Arabic title ‘shahada’ meaning ‘witness’. This creed is recited in Arabic as: ‘la ilaha illa Allah; Muhammad rasul Allah’ (There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah). This phrase known as ‘kalima’, must be recited in the presence of two witnesses to be accepted into the body of the religion. Thereafter it is recited during prayers, various religious ceremonies and whenever Islam is challenged by non-believers.

It is the foundation stone of Islam. It means Allah is one – this belief is called Tawhid. The article shows that Allah is beyond human understanding, He is unique and incomparable, He is the first and last, the one and only creator. He is supreme, eternal, infinite, mighty, compassionate, provider, all-powerful, all-knowing and master over all. He is the only one to be worshipped, hence, the article calls for complete submission to His will. Worship of other gods or creatures is considered ‘shirk’ or polytheism. This is the worst sin in Islam and is unforgivable; hence, Muslims are warned against this sin.

(b) Belief in Allah’s Angels:

This is the second important article of Islamic faith. Angels were created by Allah and are His servants. They are spiritual and splendid beings created of light. They have no gender and have no material bodies. They spend their days and nights in the service of Allah. They are messengers of Allah; they take His revelations to the prophets and they strengthen the good in every person. There is at least one angel for every person. There are many angels each with a specific duty and task to perform. Some of the angels include;

· Jibreel (Gabriel) – Is the archangel who communicates Allah’s revelations to the prophets. Is the angel who brought revelations to Prophet Muhammad.

· Mika’el (Michael) surah 2:98

· Israfeel – Is the angel who will sound the trumpet during the day of doom and resurrection (50:20).

· Izra’eel – Is the angel of death (6:61).

· Hafadhah – These are guardian angels who guard humans from religious calamities (6:61).

· Katibun – Are angels who observe and record human actions and words. They are two whereby one sits on the right and records good deeds and one sits on the left and records bad deeds (43:80; 50:17-18).

· Hamalat al-Arsh – These are the throne bearers (69:17). These are 8 angels who will bear the throne of God on the Day of Judgment.

· Malik – Is the angel in charge of hell (43:77).

· Ridwan – Is the angel in charge of paradise.

· Munkar and Nakir – These are the angels who visit the corpse immediately after burial to question it on its beliefs about Islam. If they get unsatisfactory answers they cause grievous harm and suffering, but if the answers are satisfactory the person is told to live in peace until the day of resurrection.

· Jinn (Genii) – These are created from fire. There are both good and bad jinns. They eat, drink, reproduce and die but they are not visible to human beings.

However, one angel disobeyed Allah and this was Satan or Iblis as the Qur’an calls it. It is sometimes known as Shaytan (surah 18. When Allah created the first man, Adam, Satan who was the king of angels at that time, became jealous of Adam and refused to serve mankind as Allah had commanded, so Allah expelled it from heaven. Jibreel replaced it and became the archangel. Satan is always whispering lies designed to make them believe that they are equal to Allah, which will make people do wrong, its aim is to destroy humanity.

This is the belief in the scriptures and revelations that Allah has sent down to His messengers and prophets. There are approximately 100 books which have been revealed to the prophets, however some of these books have been lost, neglected, forgotten or concealed. The most important ones are the following:

· The Tawrat (Torah) – this was revealed to prophet Musa (Moses) surah 6:91, 154; 32:23.

· Zabur (Psalms) – these were revealed to prophet Dawud (David) 17:55; 21:105.

· Injil (Gospel) – revealed to Prophet Isa (Jesus) surah 57:27.

· Qur’an (Koran) – this is the final revelation to humanity revealed to Prophet Muhammad. Muslims maintain that it is the only authentic word of Allah.

· Muslims accept the Bible but point out that it was altered in translation from Hebrew to Greek and that words authored by mortals were mixed with those of Allah, rendering it worthless. The main disagreement between the Bible and the Qur’an concerns Isa’s resurrection, with the forth surah of the Qur’an denying that the event took place.

(d) Belief in Allah’s messengers (Prophets):

All Muslims must accept that Muhammad and all the other prophets were chosen by Allah to deliver His literal word to all mankind. Their central mission was to lead humankind from paganism to the true path given to the first prophet, Adam, at the beginning of time. According to the hadith, Muhammad is said to be the final prophet or “the seal of prophecy” among the 124,000 prophets chosen by Allah (surah 5:3). Among them, about 25 are mentioned in the Qur’an.

Adam

Musa (Moses)

Idrees (Enock)

Nuh (Noah)

Hud (Heber)

Salih (Metheusaleh)

Ibrahim (Abraham)

Lut (Lot)

Ism’ail (Ishmael)

Ishaq (Isaac)

Yaq’ub (Jacob)

Yusuf (Joseph)

Shuaib (Jethro)

Ayub (Job)

Haroon (Aaron)

Dhul Kifl (Ezekiel)

Dawud (David)

Sulaiman (Solomon)

Al-Yasa (Elisha)

Yunus (Jonah)

Zakariyya (Zechariah)

Yahya (John the Baptist)

Isa (Jesus)

Muhammad

But Muslims are not permitted to worship Muhammad, or any other prophet, as Divine or god-like as this would be the sin of ‘shirk’ (this is a sin of comparing anything or any person to Allah). Therefore, the common Western description of Islam as Muhammadanism is an absurdity or illogical.

(e) Belief in the Day of Judgment:

Just as Allah created the universe and everything within it, He will bring it to an end when He so desires. On that day, the graves will be opened and the dead will be resurrected. This is when everyone will be sentenced depending on how they lived their lives. Each will be question by two angels, after which they are to be presented with a book in which their deeds were recorded while on earth. If the book is placed in the right hand, then one will be saved, but if in the left hand, then one will be damned for eternity. The saved will pass over the narrow Assirat Bridge to heaven, with its beautiful gardens. Those allowed in are the charitable and humble, and everyone persecuted for the sake of God, or who has fought for and in the name of Allah. On the other hand, the wicked will fall off the bridge into hell (jahannam) where they will suffer everlasting fire and torment. On the Day of Judgment Allah will abolish death itself so those who suffer hell will do so eternally; those who will go to Paradise will do so for ever.

(f) Belief in Allah’s Qadha and Qadar (Predestination):

Qadar is a law of measure of a thing while Al-Qadhar or Qadhar is the carrying out of the law of measure in the entire creation. This is the law of measure for everything that has been created. (Surah 3:145; 4:10; 36:37-38). Muslims must accept that Allah has already decided their fate in advance. There is nothing they can do to alter it. All nature is under the command of Allah, as is every aspect of human life. A Muslim attempts to live his life as ordered by Allah, accepting His control of everything He does at every moment of his life. The timeless knowledge of God anticipates events and these events take place according to the exact knowledge of God (18:29; 54:49).

The six articles of faith could be summarized by the following testimony:

“I solemnly believe in Allah, in His Angels, in His Books, in His Messengers, and in the Day of Judgment and the pre-measurement of what is good and bad which is from Allah and in the life after death”.

5.2.5. Five pillars of Islam

These are the principal factors in the worship of Muslims. They are duties which are part of a Muslim’s ibadah or obligations to God. They are:

5.2.5.1. Shahadah (Kalimah) – confession of Faith

Any person may become a Muslim by sincerely accepting Islam’s basic ‘creed’: “there is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah”. The beginning and essence of being a Muslim, is to recite the shahadah or kalimah. It is the word of witness. This must be done with sincere ‘intention’, as is the case with all the other pillars of Islam. Mere reciting of the words of the creed does not make the speaker a Muslim but rather it is the intention that counts. Shahadah is the bedrock of Islamic faith; therefore, it occupies the highest place in Islam.

As the fist pillar of Islam, it moulds a Muslim’s behaviour and conduct through obeying and following Allah’s laws. It is where other pillars and articles of faith originate. Shahadah affirms the oneness of God and attests that there is no being worthy of praise and worship except Allah.

5.2.5.2. Salat (obligatory/ritual prayer)

According to the rules of Ibadah, salat prayers must be offered five times every day, i.e.

· Before sunrise (salat al-asubh) – which is offered after dawn. It has got two obligatory rakahs or fard i.e. genuflections.

· The noon prayer (salat al-zuhr) – which is said between mid-day and afternoon. It has got four obligatory rakahs.

· The late afternoon prayer (salat al-asr) – It is said late afternoon around 4:00 pm. It has got four obligatory rakahs.

· The sunset prayer (salat al-magreb) – It is said immediately after sunset and comprises three obligatory rakahs.

· The night prayer (salat al-isha) – It is said before midnight before retiring to sleep. It comprises of four rakahs.

Salats are announced by a public call (adhan) by the muezzin (caller). Before a Muslim says salat the following conditions should be fulfilled:

- One has to perform partial ablution i.e. washing parts of the body that are exposed to dirt.

- Proper and descent dressing.

- One should declare the intention of the prayer by tongue and heart.

- One should face the direction of the ka’bah at Mecca.

- The stated times of prayer should be observed.

5.2.5.3. Zakat (Ogligatory almsgiving)

Zakat or Zakah means ‘purification’. Purification can be achieved by giving charitably. It is a religious and obligatory act/duty. It is the poors’ due that Muslims give in form of Alms in order to purify their property and to have God’s blessings on earth. Zakat has a close connection with salat. It is paid annually and must be given sincerely and willingly. It is paid at a uniform rate of 2 and a half percent (a fortieth) of disposable income or surplus wealth. It is not a tax but a form of worship and a religious financial commitment to the poor and needy in obedience to God’s commandments.

The beneficiaries of zakat are; the poor, the needy, the travelers, people who spread Islam, converts to Islam, those indebted and the collectors of zakat. Zakah is of significance as it purifies the heart of the giver from selfishnessand greed for material wealth and also purifies the heart of the recipient from jealousy and hatred. It also mitigates (reduces) the sufferings of the needy and the poor members of the society. The contributors of zakat are promised rewards and benefits in this world and the next world. (2:261-262; 57:18).

5.2.5.4. Sawm (Fasting)

This means fasting and is observed during the holy month of Ramadan. It means abstaining completely from food, drink, sexual relations, telling lies, quarreling, before the break of dawn till sunset during the month of ramadhan. It is the month when the revelation of the Qur’an started. It is a period when social relationships are reaffirmed, reconciliations encouraged, and the solidarity of the community is expressed. The fundamental intention of fasting is thanksgiving. Inwardly, the fast is thought of as a disciplining of the soul to wait patiently upon God who guides and provides. Muhammad is reported to have said that of all the duties of worship, sawm is the most loved by God since it is seen only by him.

Sawm is of great significance since it improves the moral inspiration and character of a person through renouncing the lawful satisfaction of a person’s desires by obeying God’s commandments. It also gives a person the ability and discipline to control physical desires, hence, promoting piety and righteousness. It also trains a person to avoid evil and sinful deeds.

5.2.5.5. Hajj (Pilgrimage)

This is the pilgrimage to the ka’bah, the holy place of worship in Mecca at least once a lifetime. Only poverty, illness, or bondage can excuse a believer from this obligatory duty. Here are the most holy of holy places for Muslims, full of ‘memorials’ of God’s guidance in times past. Hajj is performed during the month of ‘Dhu al-Hijja’ i.e. the twelfth month in the Muslim calendar.

Pilgrims flock to Mecca, each wearing the simple pilgrimage garb of white cloth denoting the state of ritual purification. They congregate in the Great Mosque and the first rite is performed – the circumambulation around the ka’bah. This is followed by running seven times between two small hills, recalling the plight of Hagar and her son, Ishmael, who, in Islamic, Jewish and Christian tradition, were saved from death by a spring of water which God caused to break through the desert sands. This well is named in the Islamic tradition as zamzam, and from it the pilgrims may draw holy water. They then move to Mount Arafat where the Hajj comes to its climax. Here the pilgrims observe the right of ‘standing’ from midday to sunset in meditation before God. Then they begin the return journey to Mecca, stopping overnight at Mazdalifa, where eac pilgrim gathers pebbles. The following day these are thrown ritually against three stone pillars in the neighbouring village of Mina, recalling the moments in Abraham’s life when he resisted satan’s temptations to disobey God, when he had been asked to sacrifice his son Ishmael, as a test of obedience. They then join with the pilgrims in Mina for the Feast of the Slaughter, which brings the Hajj to an end.

The importance of this annual gathering is that it shows their equality before God as they meet on common ground. It demonstrates universality of Islam, brotherhood and equality of all Muslims. It also confirms their commitment to God and their readiness to forsake material interests in His service. And also brings a pilgrim to realization that one must do good and desist evil or any bad habits which were part of one’s everyday life before the pilgrimage.

5.2.6. Duties of human relationship

The sharia ordains duties of human relationships. This has to do with personal and social ethics. The duties of human relationships are considered as religious duties. The duties of human relationship include; moral values, family, marriage, position of women, crime and punishment and Human rights.

5.2.6.1. Moral values

The Islamic basis for moral values is found in the Qur’an. A Muslim is expected to express his obedience to Allah through doing good deeds and being of a good character, to do evil is to disobey Allah. Surah 25:63-76 sets up clear moral standards that every Muslim should follow. One is expected to show kindness to parents, especially when they are old, to share material blessings with relatives, orphans, the poor and travelers. One should not waste money. He should use just weights and measures in business. Islam demands its adherents to avoid selfishness, be kind, just, pure, honest and hospitable. Muslims maintain a healthy moral environment.

5.2.6.2. The family

The family is a living symbol of Islamic society, and it is in the family that the values of Islam are upheld. The union of man and woman is a legal contract/agreement according to the principles of the sharia. It is divinely ordained i.e. has e deep religious meaning and is obedience to Allah. Surah 30:21 says “One of the signs of God is this that He created for you spouses like yourselves, that you might find rest in them, and He put mutual love and mercy in your hearts”.

The main purpose of marriage in Islam is to create a couple so that they can mutually enrich each other’s life and contribute as an entity to the good of society. The other purpose is to produce children and then raise them to be healthy and faithful members of the Umma. Children are the pride and joy of the family and must be brought up in faith and the ‘Adhan’ (call to prayer) is whispered to babies so that they can hear the words that God is great from the very beginning of their lives. Children must be loyal and obedient to their parents. They must also love their parents and be caring and supportive as they grow old. The father is the head of the family; the mother is the heart of the family. The father provides for the material needs; the mother creates an Islamic home true to the principles of faith. Muslims have extended families.

5.2.6.3. Marriage in Islamic life

The Qur’an says that marriage is a natural state i.e. it is a natural part of Islamic life. It is a righteous act though not a sacrament. Marriage is a public commitment between the two people. The woman must state her willingness and her father must give his permission. Sexual relations are only allowed in marriage. Sex before marriage is banned and is punished by the shariah law. Marriage is for life, so great care is taken over choosing a partner and parents and relatives are involved in the choice making i.e. arranged marriage. The Qur’an demands that the husband gives his wife money or property to keep (dowry), this belongs to the wife.

A man can have up to four wives; but the Qur’an says that if a husband cannot be equally just to all the four wives then he should have only one. The practice of polygamy was a means of providing for widows and the unmarried women, who in ancient times greatly outnumbered men. Since the unmarried state was looked upon with disfavour, the best provision was to allow men to have more than one wife. Hence, Islam permits polygamy but with some restrictions.

Divorce:

Divorce is permitted in Islamic society. However, Muhammad said that divorce is the most hateful of permitted things. The Hadith says: “With Allah, the most detestable of all things permitted is divorce”. The marriage contract is terminated only if the marriage has totally broken down; even then it must be done amicably or done in friendliness. It is only permitted when all channels of reconciliation are exhausted between the marriage partners (4:35; 33:49; 65:1-6). These texts stipulate the conditions to be fulfilled in the divorce process. In the event of divorce, Islamic law protects the rights of the wife, although the children usually go to the custody of the father. Remarriage is encouraged.

Some grounds under which divorce is permitted include the following:

· Apostasy by either husband or wife

· Maltreatment

· Long absence or when deserted by a husband

· Impotence

· Physical or financial disability

· Doing things contrary to the wife’s wish

5.2.6.4. The position of women in Islam

According to Islamic theology and law, men and women are equal before God, but this ideal is rarely realized in practice. Muslim women are required to accept that they have different roles from men in most respects, and are expected to be obedient, firstly to their fathers and then to their husbands – unless they ask them to do something which would break other parts of the shariah. Surah 4 of the Qur’an describes a woman’s father or husband as her ‘master’, with the right to beat her if she does not obey. The same surah says: “Men are the maintainers of women … the good women are therefore obedient (to their masters) – 4:34.

Muslim women, like men, are obliged to take part in the obligations of the five pillars, but are exempted when they are menstruating, pregnant or ill. But communal prayers at the mosque on Fridays are optional for women and tend to be predominantly male affairs. No woman is allowed to lead prayers. Islam has a strong menstruation taboo and no woman may attend the mosque during her period, this is cultural and not Qur’anic. Women who wish to perform the Hajj must be accompanied by a husband or a male relative.

In some Muslim countries women are required to cover their entire bodies in the presence of men other than members of their immediate family. This law is based on the Qur’an which instructs women not to wear jewellery (and, by analogy-Qiyas, make-up) and to cover their hair, breasts and ‘private parts’ in public. (33:59 and 24:30-31) Covering of the entire body – as in much of Arabia and Iran – is again a cultural practice rather than Qur’anic. Women are also required to undergo Female Genital Mutilation, which is widespread in Muslim Arabia and Africa. Inspite of the restrictions put on women, the Qur’an guarantees them the right to own and inherit property, to participate fully in political affairs and to sue for divorce. Though these rights were available since the time of Muhammad, they have only been introduced in Europe comparatively recently. And in the Third World countries – where Islam is mainly found – there is no doubt that the application of the shariah can improve the social status of women considerably.

5.2.6.5. Crime and Punishment

The shariah gives complete instructions on how a human being should live and act in all aspects of life such as social, religious, political, economic, when alone or with others. It also guides human beings on how to deal with other human beings, nature, and other objects in the world. In other words, the shariah is an all-round conscience of Islam; since it means way, road or path. It is a path that leads to God; it is a guide to human action. However, the shariah is not the only factor to restrain Muslims from wrong doing; the believer’s faith makes him desire to follow and please God by obeying the moral principles.

The shariah has no place for the rehabilitation of the individual offender in this world. The code is extremely crude and severe and is based entirely on the doctrine of ‘qiyas’ which means retaliation (to hurt somebody in return) on behalf of the community as a whole. Qiyas has its origins in the Old Testament doctrine of “an eye for an eye; a tooth for a tooth” – the principle revealed by Allah to Moses (Musa) when He first revealed His law to the Israelites. The punishment for murder or attempted murder is beheading; for theft is amputation of the right hand; for adultery and false accusation of adultery or blasphemy is stoning to death; and drunkenness is severe flogging or beating the wrong doer very hard to the point of death. One who forsakes or abandons Islam, one who involves in magic, taking property of the orphans or running away on the day of battle (jihad) is also given a capital punishment.

The society in which Mohammad lived was almost entirely lawless. In the process of creating the Islamic state Muhammad brought the feuds to an end and replaced the endless quest for revenge with simple and inescapable qiyas (retaliation) against the guilty parties. The logic behind the punishments at the time was simple – it is better to mete out swift and severe punishment than allow an incident like theft of a camel, adultery or murder or become a tribal feud killing hundreds. However, the Qur’an and hadith contain several warnings that these severe punishments should be give sparingly and only when the offender has either been accused by four eyewitnesses of spotless moral character or, preferably, has confessed to have committed the crime.

5.2.6.6. Jihad in Islam

In addition to the five pillars which every Muslim has obligation to fulfill in order to serve Allah, a truly pious Muslim takes on many more obligations, the most important obligation being ‘jihad’, which is at times described as the ‘sixth pillar’ of Islam. The literal translation of “Jihad” is “striving” (to serve Allah), but it is usually translated in the West as “Holy War”. It is a sacred duty and a command from God. All Muslims must constantly wage jihad to the best of their practical ability. In particular a fellow Muslim attacked for practicing Islam must be defended by the rest of the Muslim community. Participation in jihad for the defense of Islam is a primary duty of Muslims as daily prayers or fasting. One who shirks or avoids this responsibility is a sinner. His very claim to being a Muslim is doubtful; he is a hypocrite who fails in the test of sincerity.

Jihad is seen as a form of worship and has many rewards for those who engage in it. Rewards comprise forgiveness of sins and admission into the gardens of eternity. Jihad shows one’s patience and devotion to Islam and remembrance of Allah.

“Fight against those who believe not in God, nor in the last day … and who refuse allegiance to the true faith” [9:29]. Also refer to 2:214-215; 9:13; 22:39-40; 47:41; 49:15

Jihad should be waged against the following groups of people:

ü The pagans/idolaters and infidels/unbelievers.

ü Those who do not believe in the last day.

ü Those who fight against Islam.

ü Rebels against an Imam.

ü Rebels against Muslim rule e.g. those who refuse to pay tribute.

Types of Jihad:

- Jihad against self [Nafs] – fighting against inner feelings, temptations, bad habits and all wrong.

- Jihad against evil – fighting against all sorts of evil which can be done through moral and spiritual correction and also preaching and propagating Islam.

- Jihad against the physical enemy – Fighting in defense of Islam, Muslims, the oppressed, etc.

5.2.7. Unity and diversity/variety among Muslim

5.2.7.1. The Umma

Umma is the worldwide family/community of Islam. Umma is based on faith in the one living God. The Umma consists of Muslims of all nations, tribes, ethnic groups and races. Its harmonious and fruitful environment is intended for the entire world. Muslims believe that in the future, the whole world will recognize that its best choice is Islam.

5.2.7.2. The nature of Islamic unity

The Islamic community is recognized as one. This unity is made possible by the following factors:

· The practice of the salat/ritual prayer – Muslims all over the world pray in a similar way, though gestures and words may vary. They use a single liturgical language whereby prayers are universally recited in Arabic. ‘The opener’ i.e. surah one, is recited in Arabic. The shahada is also recited by all Muslims at the time of prayer. They all face the direction of the ka’abah in Mecca when praying.

· The pilgrimage to Mecca – Muslims all over the world converge at Mecca during the month of Ramadhan for the pilgrimage.

· The Sunna of the Prophet – All Muslims everywhere revere the example of Prophet Muhammad and affects everything that Muslims do e.g. personal life, business, etc. The Umma is the Umma of Prophet Muhammad.

5.2.7.3. Diversity within umma (the Sunni, Shia, Sufi)

Despite the ideal unified, consolidated community/Umma taught by Muhammad, sectarian differences arose among Muslim believers immediately after his death. These differences arose principally out of disputes over leadership and dynastic succession.

Although there are numerous groups within Islam, there are two basic groups – the Sunni and Shi’a. The Sunni are the majority while the Shi’a is the minority composing of approximately 10-15% of the total Muslim population. The Shi’a or Shi’ite and their various sub-sects are found mainly in Iran, Iraq, Yemen and India. The Sunni and Shi’a differ on two fundamental points namely; the line of succession and religious authority.

The Sunni:

This group of Muslims is the majority comprising approximately 85 – 90% of the world community of Islam. They call themselves the Sunna meaning that they are those who respect and follow the example of Prophet Muhammad. They follow a line of succession originated among the friends of Muhammad, beginning with Abu Bakr, who was a confidant (the trusted) of the Prophet whom he had appointed to lead the Friday prayers before his death.

The Sunnis maintain that no one could succeed Muhammad in his nature and quality as prophet, for the Qur’an finalized and perfected the revelation of divine guidance and declared Muhammad to be the ‘seal of prophesy’. Muhammad’s successor would therefore no more than the guardian of the prophetic legacy; he would be a caliph (khalifa) with subordinate authority as leader of the believers. Following Muhammad’s death in 632 AD, caliphal succession passed from Abu Bakr (632-634) to Umar (634-644) to Uthman (644-656) and to Ali (656-661). These four rightly-guided caliphs are deemed to have lived close to the Prophet and their example, together with Muhammad’s, is taken to comprise the authoritative sunna for all later generations of Muslims to follow. In matters of religious authority, they maintain that the Qur’an as interpreted by the Sunna and the Ijma is the only authoritative basis of Islam.

According to Sunni teaching a potential Muslim ruler need not prove descent from Muhammad as long as he can gain the consent of the community of the faithful (Umma). Once a ruler has proved his effectiveness – by military success and upholding the Sunni version of the shariah – Sunni Muslims are obliged to follow him unquestioningly.

The Shi’a or Shi’ite:

Modern Shi’a, in their various sub-sects make up about 10-15% of the total population of the Muslim world. The Shi’a hold that succession in the leadership of Islam follows through the family of Muhammad, and consequently they consider that Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, was the prophet’s rightful successor.

In matters of religious authority, the Shi’a insist that Islamic religious authority is vested in an Imam, who is infallible in all pronouncements regarding matters of doctrine and practice. All members of the Shi’a group must recognize and submit to the authority of the Imam. Further, most Shi’as assert that there have been twelve imams since the death of Muhammad, and that the twelfth imam, often referred to as the ‘imam of the period’ will herald the end of this world, hence, complete the cycle of imams. The twelfth imam is said to have been withdrawn since the third century of Islam, however, his guidance is still accessible through agents or doctors of the law (Mujtahidun). They believe that Muhammad, ‘the seal of prophesy’ instituted ‘the cycle of initiation’ for the continuing guidance of the community, by appointing as his successor an imam. The imam was invested with the qualities of inspired and infallible interpretation of the Qur’an.

The Shi’a speak of themselves as ‘people of appointment and identification’. To them the first imam was Ali. As cousin, adopted son and later son-in-law of Muhammad (by marriage to Fatima), he was not just a member of Muhammad’s tribe but also of ‘the people of his house’. This intimate family relationship is significant: the Shi’a believe that Ali inherited Muhammad’s spiritual abilities, who later passed these qualities on to his sons, Hasan and Husayn, and they to their descendants in the line of the imams.

Within the Shi’a group there are estimated to be over 70 identifiable groups, some with only a few followers, and all organized around rival proclamations of the arrival of the ‘concealed Twelfth’ Imam. Some of them include:

· The Twelvers or Ithna-Ashariyah (who take their name from the twelfth imam, Muhammad ibn al-Askari, in the line of Ali) – the largest Shi’a sect.

· The Seveners or Isma’ilites (who take their name from Ismail, the eldest son of the sixth Shi’a Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq) – the second largest Shi’a sect.

· The Zaydias – they are followers of the fifth imam, Zayd al-Shahid; they are the most conservative Shi’a sect and are close to the Sunnis.

· The Assassins – these split from Isma’ilites.

· The Alawites – a splinter group from Assassins.

The Sufi/Sufism:

Sufis are not a distinct group or sect; they are simply Muslims – Sunnis or Shi’as, who seek intimacy with God through a discipline of spiritual self-purification. They are found throughout the Muslim community. They are mystics of Islam, so named because of the wool garment (suf) that the early ascetics wore. The essence of Sufism is ‘spiritual detachment’ from the pleasures (zudd) of mortal life in preparation for death and self surrender into the mind of Allah. A Sufi must follow a highly moral, preferably saintly, life on earth. The heart of Sufism is the love of God. It is built on the Qur’anic assurance that ‘God loves the God-fearing’ (3:76), and fulfils their devotions in love. A Sufi denotes a person whose heart is purified from this pollution of this world. In general they live a life of self-denial, prayer and contemplation. The Prophet Muhammad is venerated by the Muslims as a Sufi. Religious tradition tells of the miraculous cleansing of his heart as a child, and of his ascension to heaven (miraj) by night when, through prayer, he experienced the mystery of God’s all-embracing unity.

5.2.8. Islam and the Modern world

5.2.8.1. Islamic view of Christian belief

From the beginning, Muslims had a well defined idea of Christianity, since Islam developed several centuries later than Christianity, and it appeared in an area of the world already influenced by Christians i.e. Arabia. The Christians of Arabia did not accept the Prophet Muhammad but they accepted his political leadership because of his wisdom and skills he employed to settle the religious differences that prevailed.

Positively, Muslims believe the virgin birth of Jesus, that he was divine, sinless, miracle – working prophet and the one to whom God revealed the injil (Gospel). Jesus is called the ‘word from God’, ‘a messenger’, to the children of God and a spirit from God. Although Christians may not commonly think of Jesus in Terms of a prophet hood, however, he once referred himself as a prophet (Matthew 13:57). The scriptures revealed to Moses and to Jesus are held to be divinely inspired (3:3).

Muslims consider Jesus’ life and teaching to have been so pure and so impressive that he aroused the opposition of wicked men who sought to destroy him. As they were carrying out their intent to crucify him, God intervened in a mighty act of deliverance, taking the prophet Jesus to paradise. Sura 4:157-158 quotes, “They did not kill him, nor did they crucify him, but it only seemed to them … God exalted him unto himself”. Muslims assert that Jesus is alive, and according to Islamic tradition, he will return to earth at the end of age to be the instrument of God’s judgment and to establish the universal way of Islam.

On the negative side, the Qur’an denies the central doctrines or beliefs of the Christian faith. It rejects the divine son-ship of Jesus (9:30), and also the doctrine of the Trinity (5:73). Muslims also hold that the original scriptures were tampered with by the translators; hence, the Bible which Christians read today is not the same as the scriptures that were first revealed.

Although Islam specifically disclaims the central doctrines of Christianity, the Qur’an contains a warm appreciation of Christian people. The people who are nearest in friendship to the believers are those who say, we are Christians; because among them are priests and monks, and they are not proud. (5:82).

5.2.8.2. The Christian view of Islamic beliefs

Early Christians had no place for Islam in their system. When the Muslim armies began to take control of Christian populations, Christians were completely ignorant of what the new religious conquerors presented. In places like Egypt, Palestine and Syria, the Muslims were often welcomed as deliverers from the military and religious oppression of the ruling Greeks from Byzantium.

When some information began to be gained about Muslims’ beliefs, many Christians especially scholars regarded Islam with disdain. Muslim warriors were unlettered and therefore their religion was not taken to be seriously. Other Christians judged Muslims to be heretics (holding contradictory beliefs) who would be finally brought to the way of Orthodox Christianity.

Muslims advanced greatly and conquered a lot of land from Christians. The relationship between Christians and Muslims became hot when Christians waged a crusade or “Holy War” to recover the homeland of Jesus. The relationship became more bitter when some Christians started talking ill of Muhammad – that he was a traitor/rebel from the Christian Church, that he was an epileptic, etc.

5.2.8.3. Reconciliation and dialogue between Muslims and Christians

Vatican II of 1962-1965 declared that: “Upon the Muslims too: the Church looks with esteem. They adore one God, living and enduring, merciful and powerful, creator of the heavens and the earth and speaker to men. They try to submit wholeheartedly even to His inscrutable decrees, just as did Abraham, with whom the Islamic faith is pleased to associate itself. Though they do not acknowledge Jesus as God, they revere him as prophet. They also honour Mary, his Virgin Mother; at times they call on her, too, with devotion. In addition, they await the Day of Judgment when God will give each man his due, after raising him up. Consequently, they prize the moral life and give worship to God especially through prayer, almsgiving and fasting.”

Where Islam as a faith is concerned, dialogue between the two religions will continue to promote mutual understanding of each other’s beliefs, or to engage in a common study of each other’s scripture. Such dialogue will often lead to the recognition that both Islam and Christianity are missionary faiths and that Muslims and Christians need to be free to witness to the distinctiveness of their respective faiths. This should lead to an acknowledgement of the principle of reciprocity: where Christians have influence, they should promote freedom for Muslims to worship and to witness to their faith freely. Equally, where Muslims have influence, they should promote freedom for Christians to worship and to witness freely.

ONLINE TUITION

Misconceptions about ATR

The source (where is ATR found?)

Individuals and their destiny

Buddhist Rebirth.

Christianity

Meaning and beginnings of Christianity

Popular

Recent

Comments

Blog Archive

Total Pageviews