TOPIC 1:CLASSIFICATION KINGDOM FUNGI-2-

The productive parts of mosses plants are the antheridium(male organ) and archegonium. (Female organ)

The antheridium and archegonium can be found on separate plants or on the same plant.

The antheridium releases mobile sperm. The sperm swim in water to reach and fertilize the egg in the archegonium to form a zygote.

The zygote develops into a young sporophyte plant which grows while still attached to the archegonium. It depends on the parent plant for nutrition and support

When it matures the sporophyte forms a capsule contains spores. When the spores are mature the capsule bursts open and they land produce new mosses plants (gametophytes)

  ADVANTAGE OF MOSSES

1. Mosses help to decompose dead logs.
2. Mosses serve as pioneer plants on bare ground and help to create a suitable environment for the growth and development of other plant.
3. Mosses retain a lot of water. They therefore help to keep the soil moist.
4. When mosses grow in a piece of land, they hold the soil particle together and help to prevent soil erosion.
5. Mosses also provide shelter for insects and other small animals.
6. Some birds and mammals use mosses as nesting materials.
7. Sporangium moss is harvested use in plants nurseries as a plant growing medium.
8. Peat derived from the remains of mosses as an important fuel in Scotland and Ireland.

  DISADVANTAGE OF MOSSES

     1. Mosses occur as weeds in gardens and other place; they are very difficult to get rid of.

     2. Mosses growing around ponds and other small water bodies can grow on the water and cover. It completely causing the area to become marshy

DIVISION FELILINOPHIC (PTERIDOPHYTES)

This division is made up of ferns. A young fern’s called a fiddlehead

                                                        

Characteristics of fern

1.         They are vascular they have xylem and phloem

2.        Ferns have leaves (called fronds), stem and root. Frond has small ‘leaflets’ called pinnae singular (pinna) which are connected to rachis. The rachis is the middle part of the frond. It has connected to the rhizome which is the short stem at the basic.

3. The life cycle of fens involves alternation of generations.
4. The sperm swims to the female egg through water. Fertilization produce a zygote (fertilized egg). The zygote grows into a new plant (sporangiosphore) that has leaves a steam and roots.

5.         The fern plants has spore, producing organs called sporangia (singular sporangium) on the underside of the leaves. The sporangia are arranged in compact groups calledsori (singular sorus).
Sori with spores

When the spore are mature the sporangia releases them into the air. A spore germinate in an environment that is suitable for it development, what germinates is called a prothallus. Prothallus has antheridia and archegonia while produce sperm and egg respectively

 

Advantages of ferns

1. Many types of ferns are grown as ornament in homes and offices.
2. In some part of the world, the fiddlehead of some types of fern is eaten.

3. In southern Asia, ferns are used as a biological fertilizer. They are able to convert nitrogen from the air into compound that can be used by rice plants.

4. Ferns are major components of coal a fossil fuel which is made up of the remain of primitive plants

5. Ferns serve as food for various wild animals.

Disadvantage of ferns

 Ferns can be found as weeds in many places. The giant water fern is one the world worst aquatic weeds.

TOPIC 2: NUTRITION

Nutrition – is the process by which an organism is provided with materials  necessary for energy release, growth repair and keeping the body.

FOOD Is any liquid or solid which provides the body with materials for growth repair,energy release or keeping the body

KINDS OR MODES OF NUTRITION

Basically there are two kinds of nutrition

1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

2. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

This is mode of nutrition where by organisms can make food from simple inorganic substance, such as carbon dioxide and water using either light energy (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis). Organisms which feed by this way are known as AUTOTROPHS.

 Example Green plants, Iron bacteria and sulphur bacteria.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

This is the process whereby green plants manufacture their own food from simple inorganic substance like water and carbon dioxide by using light energy and chlorophyll.

           

 HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

This is the mode of nutrition where by organism use organic materials as the only source of food. Organisms which feed by this way are known as HETEROTROPHICS

There are three types of heterotrophic nutrition

1. Saprophytic nutrition
2. Symbiotic nutrition
3. Holozoic nutrition 

1. Saprophytic nutrition

This is the mode of nutrition where by organisms feed on dead decaying organic matter; Organisms feeding by this away are known as SAPROPHYTES. Example: mushroom

      2.Holotrophic nutrition

This is mode of nutrition where by organism take food by mouth. It passes through a digestive system and broken down, finally absorbed into body tissue. organisms feed by this way are called holotrophs.

divided in to four groups

        i.            Herbivores – Are animals which feed on plants only Example cow, goat and zebra

      ii.            Carnivores – Are animals which feed on flash only e.g. lion, tiger.

    iii.            Omnivores – Are animals which feed on varieties o food (flash, plants, insect etc) example. Man, monkey, pig.

    iv.             Insectivores – Are animals that feed on insects e.g. shrews, ant
    

  3. Symbiotic nutrition

This mode of nutrition in which an organism of different species exist in a nutrition relationship with other organism; There are three kinds of symbiotic associations, these are: 

1. Mutualism

This is a nutritional relationship in which the two partners benefit each other by living together Example Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria in the roots of legumes. or bacteria from the ruminants stomach
     ii.   Commensalism

This is an association of two species in which one benefit other not and also unaffected. Example Epiphytes (are plants that grow on other plants) e.g. Moses and algae which grow on upper parts of big trees to get sunlight easily

  iii. Parasitic

This is a feeding relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefit and the other one affected. Organism benefit is called Parasite and the one affected is called Hosts. can be grouped into;

a.       Endoparasites are living inside the body of the host e.g. tapeworm, roundworm and plasmodia.

b.      Ectoparasites;Parasite that lives on host’s surface [outside the body] examples includes some mites, flea and body lice.

The importance of nutrition

1. Nutrition enables an organism to get nutrients and energy required for various life processes. These processes include growth and development of cells.
2. To protect body against disease.
3. Enable in replacement of worn out tissue and dead cell.
   
   

HUMAN NUTRITION (FOOD SUBSTANCES)

The basic food substances include proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, minerals, roughage and water.

1. CARBOHYDRATES.

These are compounds which contain the following elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O).

Source of Carbohydrates

Cereals - e.g. maize, rice, wheat

Sugar – e.g. honey, sugar cane, glucose, sweet fruits

Carbohydrates are says this are called SACCHARIDES

There are three groups of saccharide

1. MONOSACCHARIDES

These are simplest form (basic unit of carbohydrates) which is absorbed directly in the blood. These are also known as REDUCING SUGARS

           Their general formula is C₆ H₁₂ O₆.  Examples of Monosaccharide

1. Glucose: Occurs freely in grapes, honey, tomato and germinating maize
2. Fructose: Occurs freely in all ripe sweet fruits E.g. banana, pineapple
3. Galactose: It is found in mammalian milk

        2. DISACCHARIDES

       These are also known as NON – REDUCING SUGARS. They are found when two indicates of monosaccharide condense and release indicate of water. Their general formula is C₁₂ H₂₂ O₁₁.Example of disaccharides

            a. Maltose is formed when two molecules of glucose condense.

                                                Glucose + glucose = maltose + water

            b. Sucrose is formed by condensation of glucose and that of fructose.

                                                Glucose + fructose = sucrose + water

            c. Lactose is found by condensation of galactose molecule and glucose molecule

                                                glucose + galactose = lactose + water

    3. POLYSACCHARDES                                                                           

These are formed when several units of monosaccharide linked together. Example of polysaccharides are starch (stored in plant cell, muscles and liver as glycogen in exoskeleton of arthropods and fungal cell as chitin), and Cellulose (forms the building material of the plant cell walls)..

Function of Carbohydrates in the body

1) To provide the body with energy.

2) Carbohydrates combine with proteins, glucose and lipids which are important components of cell membrane.

2. PROTEINS

Proteins are compounds of carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. Some protein also contains sulphur and phosphorus. Formed through condensation of Amino acid, Approximately there are twenty Amino acid occurring naturally. Groups amino acids

          i.            NON – ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.

Are amino acids that human body can make, human body can make ten of amino acids.

        ii.            ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.

We get essential amino acids by eating food rich in protein. Food that contains all the essential amino acid is called first class proteins, e.g. animal protein. Second class protein lack one or one more essential amino acids, e.g. plant proteins.

Properties of protein

1) An amino acid contains an acid, carboxyl group and basic amino group. These amino acids can react with basic or acidic substances.

2) Proteins have large molecules, so they form colloids instead of true solutions.

3) Proteins are denatured (destroyed) by strong heat

4) Protein is affected by pH

Functions of protein

1. The body use proteins for tissue growth and repair such as healing of wounds and replacement of skin and mucus membranes.
2. Antibodies are made of proteins, Antibodies are important in offering immunity to the body
3. Enzymes which help us to digest food are protein in nature. In addition hormones, the chemical messengers in our bodies are also protein.
4. They are alternative source of energy in the body                                            

  3. LIPIDS

Lipids are compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are insoluble in water the mean form of dietary lipids is fats and oil. Lipids are made up fatty acid and glycerol.

Categories/types of fatty acids

Essential fatty acids

Non – essential. fatty acids

NOTE: The body can make non essential fatty acids, it is not able to produce essential fatty acids. We therefore need to eat food that contain essential fatty acid, Example of such food are oil fish, nuts oil seed (such as ground nuts, cashew nut, coconut) sunflower seeds, maize, avocados and olives.

Differences between fat and oil

FAT	OIL
i. Are solid at room temperature	i. Are liquid at room temperature.
ii. Obtained from animal sources.	ii. Obtained from plant sources.

Functions of lipids

          i.            Lipids are source of energy; they produce energy more than all foods substances.

        ii.            They are important component of cell membrane.

      iii.            Fat deposits protect delicate organs such as heart and kidney.

      iv.            Stores of fat under the skin help to insulate the body against loss of heat.

        v.            Essential fatty acids are important for the formation of substances that help to control blood pressure.

           4. VITAMINS

Vitamins are complex organic micro nutrition that is essential for growth and survival. Can be synthesized by both plants and animals. Vitamins are substance that protects our body from disease i.e. lack of vitamins results to deficiency symptoms and disorder. Vitamins can be grouped into two categories

a.       Water- soluble vitamins  – They are not stored in the body, therefore should be consumed daily. e.g. Vitamins B and C. Vitamins B is named of various forms, namely vitamin B₁ B₂ B₆ and B₁₂.

b.      Fat soluble vitamins. - They can be stored in the body and need not be consumed daily. e.g. Vitamin A, D, E and K

                              Source, functions and deficiency of vitamins

Vitamins	Source	Function	Deficiency disorder
Vitamin A (retinol)	Liver, milk, carrots, orange, and yellow vegetable	Essential for the formation of membrane of the eyes and the respiratory tract	Night blindness increased risk of infection.
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)	Lean meat, liver, eggs yeast extract and brown rice	Carbohydrate metabolism, Coordinate of muscle	Beriberi, a diseases characterized by loss of appetite, muscle cramps disorder and heart failure.
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)	Liver, meat, whole, grain cereals, yeast extract.	Needed for metabolism of all food and release of energy to cell	Severe and cracking lips corner of the mouth.
Vitamin B3 (niacin)	Nuts, fish, meat, yeast, extract unpolished rice.	Needed by enzyme to convert food into energy	Pellagra a disease characterized by skin lesions, loss of appetite and muscle weakness
Vitamin B6 (doxine)	meat, vegetables, yeast, extracts, whole grown cereals	Essential in protein metabolism	Nerve irritability sores in the mouth, eyes and anemia.
Vitamin B12 (cabalamin)	Fish, meat, eggs, milk, and lever.	Builds genetic material helps to form bloods cells.	Anemia nerve damage weights loss.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)	Citrus fruits, fresh green vegetables tomatoes.	Antioxidant improves absorption of iron used in synthesis of collagen in the bones and gums.	Muscle weakness, easy bruising joint pains scurvy (bleeding gums) poor heating of wounds frequent infection.
Vitamin D	Egg yolk, milk oily, fish and liver	Helps to build and maintain teeth and bones.	Rickets in children osteoporosis (soft bones) in adult
Vitamin E	Corn of sunflower oil, butter, brown, rice and peanuts	Antioxidant prevents damage of all membranes	Nerve abnormalities infertility in rats.
Vitamin K	Green vegetables and liver	Needed for normal clothing	Detective blood coagulation resulting in excessive bleeding.

        

   5.Mineral salts

These are inorganic compounds containing elements vital for the proper functioning of the body.

a)      macro minerals  required in relative large quantities.

b)      micro minerals or trace element are required in very small quantity

The following are example of minerals, their sources and their functions in the body.

a) Macro minerals

Minerals	Source	Function	Deficiency symptoms
Calcium (Ca)	Milk, yoghurt, cheese, sardines, egg, green vegetable	Helps build strong bones and teeth promote muscle and nerve functions important in clotting of blood.	Weak bones, bleeding easily
Phosphorus (P)	Meat, milk, fish, eggs and nuts	Builds bones and teeth, help muscle and nerve activity aids formation of genetic materials	Impaired nerve activity bone and teeth formation
Potassium (K)	Peanut, bananas, orange juice, green beans and meat.	Help maintaining regular fluid balance needed for nerve and muscle	Poor muscle contraction
Iron (Fe)	Liver, meat, beans and green vegetables	Essential formulating hemoglobin [the red pigment in blood)	Anemia
Zinc (Zn)	Oysters, shrimp, crab, meat, yeast extracts	Activities enzymes helps to heal wounds necessary for a healthy immune system	Impaired tasks poor immune response, skin problems
Sodium (Na)	Table salt	Necessary for nerve and muscle activity	Muscle cramps
Chlorine (Cl)	Table salt	Maintenance of water and ionic balance formation of hydrochloric acid in the stomach	Poor digestion of proteins
Magnesium (Mg)	Spinach, pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds and black beans	Relaxation of nerves and muscle strengthening of bones.	Muscle weakness, irregular heartbeat and weaker bones

b) Micro minerals

Iodine (I)	Iodinated table salt and sea food	Production of thyroid hormone which regulate growth development of bones and teeth helps prevent tooth decay	Goiter (enlarged thyroid gland)
Fluoride (F)	Fluorinated water and fluoride tables	Development of bones and teeth helps prevent tooth decay	Poor development of bones and teeth , tooth decay
Manganese (Mn)	Kidneys, liver, tea, coffee nuts and fruit	Formation of bones and activation of enzymes	Nausea, dizziness, loss of heating loss of bone mass
Copper (Cu)	Meat, fish, and liver	Synthesis of bones and hemoglobin, activation of enzymes	Bleeding under skin, easy rupturing of blood vessel, bones and joint problems anemia

       

   4. ROUGHAGE

This dietary fiber that is obtained from indigestive part of plants; Roughage does not have any nutritional value as it is not digested and absorbed in the body.

Source of roughage :

Whole grown cereals, fruits, beans, cabbage, spinach, cassava and whole baked potatoes.

functions

        i.            Helps in the passage of food and faces through the gut by avoiding contraction of the gut muscle.

                                    

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