TOPIC ONE Social and Economic Factors for Interactions

TOPIC ONE

Social and Economic Factors for Interactions

Interaction can be defined as the way in which people from a given community came into contact with another community. As humans cannot fully live alone due to the progressing day to day needs; interaction is inevitable among people because through interaction we was able to access different requirements. However, aspects of socio-economic development further strengthened the need for interaction.

The Social Factors which gave Rise to Interactions among the People of Africa

Explain the social factors which gave rise to interactions among the people of Africa

Political and social factors

·         War: Some interactions were brutal and hostile as some strong communities attacked the weaker ones in order to control them. Some societies succeeded in their struggle while others failed. For example, from 1820s Egypt was in constant attacks to control the North-east and East Africa.

·         Migration: As communities grew in number this lead to a scarcity of resources, which forced others to migrate in search of resources that were and meeting other people with whom they created new social relations for example the Bantu migration and the Ngoni migration.

·         Intermarriage: This occurs when two people of different groups married and can be seen in the broader context of mixing of different groups in marriage, cohabitation or sexual relations. Therefore, this made African people interact and begin new communities.

·         Religion:Africans had their traditional African religions which acted as a symbol of unity and togetherness. Their religions brought them together.

·         Music and games:African societies had a rich history of music and games, as people from different communities interacted on different occasions sharing their experiences; this was mainly for entertainment and recreational purposes.

The Economic Factors that gave Rise to the Interactions among the People of Africa

Explain the economic factors that gave Rise to the interactions among the people of Africa

Economic factors

·         Trade: Different societies had to move in search of commodities which led to interaction. For example, people of Zambia, Mozambique and Rwanda had trade links with people of East Africa and in North Africa people interacted with West Africans through Trans-Saharan trade.

·         Search for new land: Areas that were not conducive for human settlement and production activities were left behind and those that with conducive conditions like fertile soil and good climate did attract many people. For example agricultural community did shift from areas that were infertile to those areas with reliable rainfall and fertile soil.

The Impact of the Economic Interactions

Explain the impact of the economic interactions

The economic impacts of the interaction can be grouped into two as positive and negative impacts as elaborated below:

Positive economic impacts

·         Development of technical skills and new ideas: Interaction led people of Africa from different communities to share their skills and ideas for economic growth.

·         Growth of new towns and cities:Interaction among African people led to the development of new towns as most of the populated areas grew economically due to the population increase and production activities such as trade and agricultural activities.

·         Foundation for future economic development:The foundation was made through improvement of infrastructures and social services which aimed to meet the socio-economic demands of the growing population.

·         Intensification of agricultural production to meet the demand on the market: Following the market demands for agricultural products as they were highly demanded then intensification of agricultural production was inevitable.

Negative economic impacts

·         Overexploitation of African resources: Interaction among African people resulted in overexploitation of African resources through trade which was unequal in nature.

·         Emergence of classes among the Africans: Classes emerged dividing poor Africans from rich Africans who accumulated wealth from different economic, social and political activities.

·         Exposure of Africa to the outside world:African country and its resources came to be exposed to the outside world due to interaction.Decrease of productive manpower due to slave trade; through interaction the outsiders started to take slaves from Africa to their mother countries as labor power.

Impacts of social interaction

·         Population increase: Areas that attracted large numbers of people became highly populated, especially productive areas. The increased population resulted into socio-economic development in the given areas which facilitated immigration.

·         Emergence of new languages: Asdifferent people interacted new languages emerged. For example, the Swahili language emerged due to interaction between Arabs, Africans and Europeans.

Who were the Ngoni?

The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide’s leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his group in 1840s moved to East Africa into two groups of the Maseko and Tuta under Zwangendaba. They moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1840s due to “Mfecane” (time of trouble). They are currently settled in south west Tanzania around Songea town.

The Ngoni invasions illustrate the influence of external forces on the lives of the indigenous people. However, the Ngoni brought innovation and changes such as military techniques, skill and weapons. A study of the Ngoni will enable students to appreciate the current settlement patterns and way of the life of the southern Tanzania.

The Causes of the Ngoni Migration

Explain the causes of the Ngoni migration

Reasons for the Ngoni migration

·         The Ngoni migrated due to the tyrannical and dictatorial rule of Shaka: The Zulu ruler was cruel in nature as he severely tortured people and those who failed to respond to his order were killed. Due to this some people decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.

·         External pressure from the British and Boers: They moved because of external pressure from the British and Boers in the South who were moving Northwards occupying their land.

·         It was due to overpopulation: Thiswas caused by the fertility of soils and the reliability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.

·         Pastoralism reason: Some Ngoni people owned large herds of cattle and northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals. So they wanted to look for more fertile land for their cattle. They also experienced famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.

·         The influence of their leaders: Men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama provided good leadership. This encouraged them to move onwards.

·         Overstocking: It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals as they were having spirit of cattle rustling, i.e. they had great desire to steal other people’s cattle. For example they went on driving away and confiscating other people’s cattle during their conquest and expansionist wars.

·         Increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments:These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that they could have other territories through migration.

Movement and settlement of the Ngoni to East Africa

They began their movement from South-East Africa in Northern Zulu land under the leadership of Zwangendaba in 1820. The Ngoni migration took place in the 19^th century, and was the last major movement of Bantu people into East Africa

There were three groups of the Ngoni in East Africa as:-

·         The Ngoni Tuta

·         The Ngoni Ngwangara

·         The Ngoni Maseko

They then crossed river Zambezi and river Limpompo and moved northwards in search of new land. Later in 1835 they divided into two groups. The one group under the leadership of Zwangendaba passed west of Lake Malawi and settled at Ufipa in 1840. They were attracted to this area here because of the many herds of cattle around.

Zwangendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered in East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi River, moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the fipa plateau in around 1840’s. Zwangendaba died here in around 1845, and his followers splint up into five sections.

Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi while the other two such as Tuta and Gwangara sections remained at ufipa. Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo (Maseko Ngoni) passed East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea. When Zwangendaba died around 1845, the Ufipa Ngoni disagreed and split into five groups.

Whereby the two groups remained in East Africa such as Tuta and Gwangara Ngoni, three groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and the two moved back to Zambia.

The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left in Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and crashing with the Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika, they disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji. In the1850s they invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks. They finally settled at Kahama South of Lke Victoria.

The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved eastwards to Songea where they met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the Maseko Ngoni were defeated and pushed out of Songea in 1860’s.

Some Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they became known as the Mbunga. Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru. From Songea the Ngoni raided widely, finally settling southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe and Sangu. The Ngoni migration which started around 1820s had ended by the year 1860s.

Why were the Ngoni successful in defeating/conquering the people of East Africa

The Ngoni came in big numbers and were strong:On their way they absorbed or fought off the people they encountered, capturing the young for worries and young women for wives.They had good military organization with age-regiments calledimpis” (strong army).

The Ngoni had a large, well trained and disciplined army; they were grouped in age-regiments which were maintained for long periods.The Ngoni did not cultivate but rather lived by plundering from others this enabled them to have a standing army always ready for battle.

They had superior weapons such as the short stabbing spear (Assegai) and big cowhide shields, which only left soldiers face exposed to the enemy, protected the worriers. Instead of the long throwing spears which had to be thrown one by one, the Ngoni adopted short stabbing spears and clubs known as Assegai, copied from Shaka the Zulu.

On the other hand their enemy used the long throwing spear. They used this for close hand to hand combat, and the warriors could be protected by the large cow-hides shields which left only the warrior’s face exposed to the enemies.

They had superior military tactics such as cow horn method (semi-circle), which was unfamiliar in East Africa. They fought in organised age regiments and could attack their enemies using the cow horn formation. They also chose clear open spaces for fighting and liked attacking their enemies during nights.

They met small and fragmented societies, which were unable to challenge their military organisation. Slave trade had undermined most of the communities of southern Tanzania.The Ngoni were successful due to their determination. They were determined to conquer and obtained places for settlement. This was due to the fact that they were already chased away from their homeland, and their only alternative was to get determined and fight any people they came across.

The East African people were caught unaware and therefore did not offer much resistance. The Ngoni were successful because the local people whom they were fighting with were so weak ad lived in small groups, which could not resist/challenge the sudden and unexpected Ngoni invasion.

Disunity among the East African peoplewholived in isolated societies, made it easy for Ngoni to defeat them.

The Ngoni were fully united under their commanders. They were successful because of their unity and solidarity. They mixed freely with the non-Ngoni speaking people.They had strong military leaders for example, Zwangendaba, Induna and Maputo who were able to unite and command the Ngoni.

They used assimilation policy, i.e. they absorbed the people they defeated. They would force the captured men from other tribes to join them and became Ngoni warriors.They also made themselves fearful to their enemies by wearing the skeletons of their victims.

The Ngoni military organisation

The Ngoni were small group of people but were able to make their presence and authority fell by the local people because of their leadership, outstanding military efficiency and their capacity to absorb conquered people into their armies.

Militarily the Ngoni were organised in large standing armies and age regiments; people of the same age trained together, which brought unity and efficiency.They used the short stabbing spears called assegai rather than the long throwing spears which meant that the warriors could attack more effectively at a close range

They used large cow hide shields, which could not be easily penetrated by spears. They used the cow horn method of surrounding an enemy and attacking from all sides giving the enemy little chance to escape.

They often fought on their feet and in open areas for easy movement. They moved in a large numbers which helped them to outnumber their enemies who were often caught unaware, they used to absorb and assimilate all conquered people.

The Social, Political and Economic Effects of the Ngoni Migration

Explain the social, political and economic effects of the Ngoni migration

Effects of Ngoni invasion or migration in East Africa

Positive effects

·         The Ngoni invasion led to the rise on outstanding leaders to prominence. These included Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.

·         Many small Ntemi chiefdoms came together (united) and formed large political units under strong leaders to fight the Ngoni for example Sangu and Hehe (re-organisation).

·         There was formation of new societies/tribe like the Mbunga.

·         The Hehe under Mkwawa were able to resist the Germans.

·         There was spread of Ngoni customs and culture for example initiation ceremonies where girls were taught sex educations and circumcision.

·         It led to formation of a large Ngoni society in East Africa as they absorbed many people.

·         It led to the ormation of some societies by those who used Ngoni tactics for example Nyamwezi under Mirambo.

·         It led to the introduction of new weapons eg. assegai, cowhides and shields.

·         From the Ngoni invasion people learned how to become organised from smaller disorganised society, to well organised bigger political systems. These were to be under the control and leadership of organised, strong and efficient rulers such as the Sangu chief, Hehe etc.

·         There were intermarriages between Ngoni and Nyamwezi which subsequently led to improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous people and an increased population.

Negative effects

·         They caused the loss of lives leading to depopulation in some areas where they got warriors this was especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the expansionist wars e.g. the Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.

·         They introduced military organisation and tactics to such an extent that the Ngoni lost their superiority. e.g Holoholo were able to defeat the Tuta Ngoni when they re attacked them.

·         Their movement led to wider spread of devastation, depopulation and displacement of people.

·         They destroyed the economy of the people of southern Tanzania when they grabbed their cattle (the Ngoni were cattle plunderers). The Ngoni invasion led to poverty, i.e. it led to the creation of the class of poor people as their property continued to be destroyed and persistently looted during the wars.

·         The Ngoni led to formation of refugees who lived by plundering and killing i.e. the Mariti and Rugaruga who were later used by ambitious men like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe to form their empires.

·         The Tuta Ngoni on their movement northwards, disrupted the trade particularly between Tabora and Ujiji.

·         There was loss of peoples’ language, culture and customs (detribalisation of people), i.e. the raids caused many people to become homeless and tribe less. This led to people losing their identity. In addition, such groups became terrorists who lived by war, plunder and hunting for ivory. They included the “Rugaruga” who began hiring their services as mercenaries to any chief willing to pay them.

·         Ngoni disturbances disrupted normal cultivation leading to famine. There was widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting circumstances, crop could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.

·         They led to insecurity since the new weapons and military tactics increased warfare and aggression in East Africa.

·         The Ngoni intensified slave trade in East Africa, this was because they displaced people from their homes and so making it easy for slave raiders to catch and sell them.

·         It led to increased warfare among the African societies, including those areas that had been peaceful before.

SOCIAL-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

Social Organisation and Production

Economic production in the pre colonial Africa can only be analysed when we look into modes of production in the pre colonial African society. This consists of the productive forces and relations of production. Examples of modes of production existed in the pre colonial African societies were communal mode of production, feudal modal of production and slave mode of production.

The Meaning of Social Organisation and Production

Explain the meaning of social organization and production

Social organization

Can be defined as the mode of production existing in a given place at a given period of time. Modes of production involve productive forces that are human labour, instrument of labour, economic activities and objects of labour and production.

Types of Social Organizations and Production; Communalism

Mode of production

Refers to the varied ways that human being collectively produce the means of subsistence in order to survive and enhance social being.

OR

This can be referred to as a combination of productive forces and a relation of production.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Productive forces:

This is the combination of human labour, object of labour and means of labour. For instance human labour is usually applied on devices such as machines and at the end they form productive forces.

Human labour:

Labour – is a conscious and purposeful activity of people which is directed in producing material wealth.

Types of labour

a)       Physical labour: Is when a person manipulates the environment according to his physique

b)       Mental  labour: is a type of labour in which a person uses his or her mental skills to perform any activity.

Instrument of labour(means of labour)

                These are all things or tools which assist human being in his/her process of production. They can be tractors, hoes, or any other machines which simplifies work.

Object of labour.

                This includes things subjected to human labour. Normally human labour is applied on them and they exist on either naturally or manmade. Eg land, forest etc

Relation of production

                This refers to the interactions of individuals in the process of production. It is the relations arising between or among people in the production process. It can be either friendly relations took place in communalism or exploitative one took place during slavery.

 Therefore in this topic we shall fully analyze characteristics of various mode of production in the pre colonial African societies. The followings are the modes of production existed in the pre colonial African societies.

THE MEANING AND ORIGINS OF COMMUNALISM IN AFRICA

Explain the meaning and origins of communalism in Africa

COMMUNAL MODE OF PRODUCTION

This was the first mode of production to exist in human history (pre colonial African societies) characterized with the communal ownership of the major means of production. It was divided into two namely:

                Primitive communalism The first mode of production through which all societies passed was primitive communalism. It is called "primitive‟ because of the low level of productive forces and "communalism‟ because there was no exploitation of man by man. This mode of production existed for much longer period than any other mode as it ranged from the emergence of man more than one million years ago.

                Advanced communalism During that era man advanced in his tools through various discoveries like iron tools. It is because of this technological advancement that is why it came to be known as advancement communalism.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM

Low level of production:With crude tools like stone and little knowledge, man hardly mastered his surroundings. He managed to get basic needs such as food, clothes and shelter. Due to low level of development in science and technology people produced food for their day to day use; hence there was no surplus of production.

Collective ownership: Members of the community jointly owned the major means of production including land, tools and animals. The clan leader headed the members of the clan. However, communal societies were not stratified as a result all commodities produced were shared equally for there was no exploitation.

Absence of specialisation:People were obliged to do all the jobs including making tools, hunting, looking for foods, preparing shelters and clothes. The division of labour was based on gender and age, men hunted and collected food while women were responsible for cooking, taking care of the young, sick and old people.

Full democracy: All decision making was arrived at by all adult members of the group regardless of their gender.

Generally, people lived together according to blood relations in small groups by tracing their origin from the same ancestor. Each group was separated from the other by large tracts of land.

TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM TO ADVANCED COMMUNALISM

During primitive communalism all the time man largely depended on nature so as to increase his labour productivity.

Domestication of animal and plants or emergence of Neolithic revolution in the late age of the Stone Age; this was the greatest revolution made so far for the first time by man.

Development of permanent settlement: Even with nomadic pastoralist or shifting cultivation the area of operation became limited as the number of people increased due to the Neolithic revolution. Hence the production increased with the population following this permanent settlement was inevitable.

Advanced production of tools like hand hoes, panga, axe and other iron tools resulted from the Neolithic revolution

Land continued to belong to the community but agriculture became the major economic activity.

TRANSITION FROM ADVANCED COMMUNALISM TO FEUDALISM MODE OF PRODUCTION

African societies were not static, but they underwent transformations, which were influenced by the environment, climate and soil fertility, the growth of population and the increase of productive forces all which paved the way for a new mode of production.

Such factors caused societies' transitions from communalism to feudalism, by the 19th century some societies were practicing feudalism. However, groups such as the Tindiga of Tanzania, Khoisan of Kalahari maintained their communal mode of production.

Some societies lived in areas with good climate and fertile soils. Such societies included the Mandika and the Yoruba in the forest of savannah regions, Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankore, Toro, Tutsi, Haya, Hutu and Waha of East Africa as well as the Zulu and the Nguni in South Africa.

Reliable rainfall and fertile soils allowed the expansion of agriculture and the cultivation of permanent crops e.g. bananas in Buganda.

The cultivation of permanent crops led to the growth of permanent settlements which ensured surplus production.

The advancement of science and technology led to the discovery of iron. From iron people made strong and sharper tools than stone tools which increased the rate of production.

The growth in population led to an increase in food production and the standard of living. Population increase resulted in shortage of land and caused overcrowding this also led to the rise of highly centralised states that developed standing armies which later carried out constant raids. Shortage of land and its increase in value contribution to the development of productive forces since they were conditioned to produce everything in small areas.

Such factors threatened the communal mode of production and led to feudalism, since land was privately owned by people. This created classes of land owners and those who were landless within the community. Organisation of labour was then dictated by land controllers at the expense of the landless who worked for the land owners in order to be paid. Also, the distribution of products was not equal; as land controllers took the highest shares for themselves.

Furthermore societies underwent a transformation from communalism to feudalism systems due to the fact that some societies become strong and conquered weaker societies.

THE MEANING AND ORIGINS OF SLAVERY IN AFRICA

SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION

                This was the second mode of production in human history and also the first exploitative mode of production that emerged after the development of productive forces. It based on exploitation, humiliation and oppression of slaves by the slave master.

          Slavery is a situation whereby a person is owned by another person as instrument of production and the owned person has no right of any kind. In a nutshell slavery is an act of owning and using slaves.

In pre-colonial Africa slaves were considered as personal possessions and could be inherited, given as gifts, bought or sold and were forced to work with no rewards.

In East Africa the Sambaa, Kerewe, Haya, Ngoni, Ganda, Kamba and Mijikenda owned slaves and most of the slaves were treated more or less like servants rather than property.

In some societies like Oyo, Hausa and Asante of West Africa, slaves were appointed as administrators and tax collectors

                Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work and to demand compensation

                Historically, slavery was institutionally recognized by many societies but in more recent times slavery has been outlawed in most societies continues through the practices of debt bondage, indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servant kept in captivity, adopted children are sometimes forced to work as slaves as well as child soldiers and forced marriage.

Slavery is a condition in which one human being is owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most rights ordinarily enjoyed by free persons.

There is no consensus on what the slave was or on how the institution of slavery should be defined. Nevertheless, there is general agreement among historians, anthropologist, economists, sociologist and others who study slavery that most of the following characteristics should be presented in order to term a person a slave. The slave was a species of property; thus he belonged to someone else.

HOW PEOPLE BECAME SLAVES

Ø  Some people were born into bondage by virtue of their parents having been slaves

Ø  Others were war captives kidnapped after intercommunity warfare

Ø  Those who violated a certain taboo/ an oaths or against a certain beheviour. E.g. in Sokoto Caliphate of North Nigeria, people became slaves for refusing to accept Islam.

Ø  Individuals who were disadvantaged e.g landless opted to become slaves, starving people or those greatly indebted would volunteer to become slaves and work for free for their masters.

ORIGIN OF SLAVERY

Slavery could have began due to either of the following reasons

Ø  The expansion of production where some people accumulated a lot of resources and created two classes of people, the rich and the poor. The rich started to enslave the poor

Ø  The emergence of trade made some selfish people want to enslave others for economic gain. E.g Coastal traders encouraged Nyamwezi to capture her neighbours and sell them into slavery.

USES SLAVES SLAVE

Ø  Slaves were used in following several activities

Ø  Slave labour generated wealth for slave owners: e.g. they increased labour force and production in agriculture

Ø  A sign of status and Prestige. The more slaves one owned, the respect one gained from other people.

Explain the features of slavery as well as the use of slaves

Characteristics of slavery mode of production

·         Existence of two classes example; slave masters and slaves

·         Low productive forces

·         Existence of political institution

·         Surplus production

·         Exploitation

·         Private ownership of major means of production

Feudalism

The Meaning and Origins of Feudalism in Africa

Explain the meaning and origins of feudalism in Africa

Feudalism

Was the third mode of production but the second in exploitation of land. Feudalism is derived from the Latin word feudum which means a piece of land; it's so because this mode of production was largely based on land as a major means of production. According to Marxist feudalism came from the womb of the slavery mode of production because it bases on exploitation of the lower class.

Features of feudalism

Feudal rent:The feudal lords exploited the peasants through the payment of rent. This was paid in kind and in labour.

Private ownership of productive forces: Thisincluded land, tools, cattle and women who were privately owned by feudal lords

Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron technology productive forces were improved drastically.

A Prognostic social class:This was based on exploitation of one class i.e. feudal lords of tenants or peasants.

Direct subordination of the lower social class to the upper class of feudal lords.

Division of labour and specialisation: Basedon gender and age

Inheritance:Created as a means to determine one's position in society according to birth, it determined who became a leader and who a subject.

Improved productive forces:Especially tools applied in agriculture and military warfare, this was brought about by iron technology.

Generally, African kingdoms such as Buganda and some forest states of West Africa, used means of production centered around either land or livestock-especially cattle-peasants could use the land freely but they were required to pay rent.

How Production was Organised under Feudalism

Explain how production was organized under feudalism

Under the feudal economic system, production was organised within the kingdom; people organised their activities on the basis of extended families. Each household head was responsible for the organisation of labour in his family based on social and material requirements. Labour was organised on the basis of age, gender and specialization.

The Merits and Demerits of the System of Power Sharing under Feudalism

Assess the merits and demerits of the system of power sharing under feudalism

Merits of feudalism

·         The rich supported the poor with food during drought and famine.

·         There was peace in the state as the rich classes maintained law and order

·         The societies were highly stratified, with each class of people knowing their positionknowing their position and role

·         Everyone had a means of earning the living because the landowners gave all poor peoplein the society a piece f land to cultivate.

·         The weak people in the society were protected by the king or the rich landowners forexample among the Rwandese, the Tutsi had an obligation to protect their tenants theHutu.

Demerits of feudalism

·         The rich exploited labour force of the poor

·         Only a few people in society owned land

·         There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor

·         The peasants were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their land lords

·         It encouraged inter-community warfare as landlords fought in order to increase their land and vassals

Basic assignment

1.       Explain the term social organisation and production

2.       Identify the types of social organizations and production that existed in Africa up to the19th century

3.       What is communalism mode of production?

4.       Identify the characteristics of communalism

5.       Show examples of the societies that had communalism up to the 19th century

6.       What is slavery and slave mode of production?

7.       Explain the features of slavery in Africa

8.       Show areas where slavery was practiced in Africa

9.       What is feudalism as mode of production?

10.    Explain the characteristics of feudalism

11.    Show societies in east Africa that had feudalism up to the 19th century

12.    Explain the feudal relation (forms of feudalism) that existed in the following areas.i) Interlacustrine region of Lake Victoriaii) Indian Ocean coast of East Africa.

TOPIC THREE

AFRICAN AND THE EXTERNAL WORLD

Early Contacts with the Middle East and Far East

Contacts with the Middle East and Far East began as early as 200BC. Early foreigners to visit the African coast were people from Asia including countries like Syria, Arabia, India, Burma, Thailand, China, Spice Islands and Egypt from North Africa. Availability of goods such as ivory, gold, animal skins and slaves was one of the motives which attracted the traders to visit the East African Coast.

Historically, contacts between East Africa and Middle and Far East go as far back as 200 BC. Evidence is shown through archeological excavations. These have revealed remains of pottery, porcelain, cons, beads and tombs along the East Africa Coast which are believed to originate from Middle and Far East. Another piece of evidence from the book “Periplus of the Ertythrean Sea” or a Guide Book to the Indian Ocean, written in the 1^st CAD by early Greek Trades, contain details about life at the East African Coast.

Regular trading contacts began around 8^th CAD. Most of the traders came from China, Indonesia, (East Indies) and India. Later in the 10^th C, traders also came from Arabia, Persia (Iran), Syria and Egypt. Their commercial activities covered the whole of the Eastern Coast of Africa between Mogadishu and Sofala.

The Social and Economic Motives of Contact between Africa, Middle East and Far East

Explain the social and economic motives of the contacts between Africa, middle east and far east

Motive of the contact

·         Availability of goods such as ivory, gold, animal skins and slaves which had attracted the traders.

·         The discovery of the power of wind and its patterns i.e. the Monsoon which helped to drive their vessels across the Indian Ocean to East Africa (South West Monsoon, November, to April) and back to their home lands (North East Monsoon, May to October).

·         Development of marine vessels technology.They could contract large dhows which enabled them to carry huge quality of goods.

·         Acceptance by the local people along the coast.They expected to benefit in the trading relationship.

·         Constant warfare in the Middle East especially Persia made Arabs flee to East Africa their survival depended on trade.

The Major Commodities which were Exchanged during the Contact between Africa, Middle East and Far East

Identify the major commodities which were exchanged during the contacts between Africa, middle east and far east

Commodities (export) from Eastern Africa

GOLD form Mwanamutapa Empire was brought to the coast at Sofala. The gold traders (foreigners) had to pay tax to the rulers of Kilwa.

·         Ivory - Was brought to the coast at may points

·         Slaves - Were brought to the coast at many points

·         opper - Was brought to the coast from Katanga

·         Cum Copal - Was found on the coastal area opposite

·         Other Goods - Rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, beeswax

Imports to East Africa

·         From India-Cotton clothes, beads and iron implements

·         From Maldives Islands-Cowries shells which were used as money and also as ornaments

·         From China -Silk clothes, porcelain

·         From Arab and Persia -Swords, daggers (weapons), glassware and Persian rugs.

·         From East Indies (Malaysia or Spice Islands) - Spices

·         From Burma and Thailand - Stone ware i.e. pots and jars

Means of transport

The foreigners travelled in dhows which were driven with the help of Monsoon winds. The North East Monsoons (Winter Monsoons) blew between the months of November and April and brought the traders to Eastern Africa, South East Monsoons (Sumer Monsoons) which blew between the month of May and October took them back to their homes.

The Social and Economic Effects of the Contacts between the People of Africa, The Middle and Far East

Explain the social and economic effects of the contacts between the people of Africa the middle and far east

The rise of Coastal City states

By the 13^th C, trade along the Coast of East Africa was strengthened and gave rise to city states. Many Arabs settled in the area for commercial purposes. The settlements grew into towns/cities: Kilwa, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Malindi, Mogadishu, Lamu, Sofala, Pate and Kismayu.

Intermarriage

The Arabs, mainly intermarried with Africans within their Coastal settlements.The outcome of this racial mingling was the emergence of the Swahili people

The Growth/Emergence of the Kiswahili Language

This resulted from the mixture of Bantu and Arabic words

Introduction of New Arts and Crafts

Buildings along the Coast eg. Houses, palaces, mosques were built in Arabic and Persian styles (using stones)

Introduction of Islam

The Arab traders brought their religion with them.Therefore several coastal Africans were converted to the Islam faith.The Africans copied Arabic styles of dressing – men dressed in kanzu and women in baibui.

The Coastal Towns (Cosatal City States) 1000 AD-1500 AD

The coming of the Asian traders to East Africa especially Arabs led to the development of Coastal towns such as Mogadishu, Merka, Brava, Kismayu, Lamu, Pate, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, Kilwa and Sofala.

Political control

There was never a single united empire on the coast, no ‘Zenji Empire’ as sometimes believed.Each town retained its own rulers though many were dominated at different times by the most powerful settlements. Many had ruling families descending from Persia or Arabian rulers.

The Leading Coastal Towns

Mogadishu

·         It was the first to gain wealth and importance due to its position in the North, This enabled it to control the sea route to the South and to dominate the trade from the rest of East Africa.

·         It is said to have been founded in the 11^th Century by a group of people from Persian Gulf.

·         It became an important Islamic centre.

·         It gradually declined as towns such as Kilwa and Mombasa gained importance.

Kilwa

·         For many centuries it became important because it controlled most of the trade along the coast.

·         Its greatness reached the highest peak in the 13^th Century when it gained control over gold trade from Sofala. it built huge beautiful stone buildings eg. The Husuni Kubwa Palace and Friday Mosque.

·         It also became an important Islamic Centre. Kilwa was the first coastal state to mint its own coins. It declined at about 1490 A.D.

Zanzibar

·         It is believed to be the first coastal stop in East African coast to be settled by foreigners.

·         It was free from Kilwa and had Arab rulers who were able to establish strong control over the people.

·         Having powerful rulers, it became an important trading centre and in the 15^th Century it began to mint its own coins.

Mombasa

·         Mombasa was an export centre for Ivory and slaves before 15^th Century.

·         Its importance and wealth was a result of its trade with India

·         The rulers were Swahili and the African element in its culture was strong.

Malindi

·         It was an important market centre for exporting iron which came from mainland Kenya.

·         It accepted Islam religion and the rule of Sultans. The people copied new ways of Government administration from Arabs.

THE DECLINE OF THE COASTAL CITY STATES

Trade between East Africa, Middle and Far East was disturbed by Portuguese invasion along the coast in the 16^th Century and 17^th Century. The Portuguese attempted of capture and control the Indian Ocean trade and this led to wars.The Portuguese invasion on the East African coast caused four major changes in the pattern of trade:

·         There was diversion of the major trade routes especially in connection to with copper and gold. These items were now shipped overseas from Sofala southwards and through the Atlantic Ocean.

·         Conflict developed between African gold miners and Portuguese traders. The Portuguese sought control of gold production and this was resisted by African miners and there was a decline in the output of gold.

·         Portuguese imposed trading licenses and permits on African and Arab traders. This led to further decline of trade between East Africa and Asia.

·         Coastal City states such as Kilwa began to decline because their prosperity depended on gold trade. This meant the African and Arab traders who acted as middlemen also lost business.

Contacts with Europe (The Portuguese, Dutch Settlement at the Cape)

The Social and Economic Motives of Contact between Africa and Portugal

Explain the social and economic motives of the contacts between Africa and the Portuguese

The Portuguese

The contact between Africans and Portuguese dates back as far as 15^th Century:

·         The Portuguese led by Vasco da Gama reached the East coast in 1498.They were the first Western Europeans to enter the Coast from the South.

·         The Portuguese managed to reach this region in their attempt to explore a sea route to India around the continent of Africa.

·         Their search for a sea route was supported by Prince Henry the navigator, the son of King John of Portugal.

The Commodities which were Exchanged during the Contact

Identify the commodities which were exchanged during the contacts

Commodities which were exchanged during the contact

·         The important commodities involved during the contact included, copper, gold, silver, spices and ivory from Africa and invaluable goods from Europe such as wines alcohol, mirrors, glassware etc.

The Social and Economic Impact of the Portuguese in Africa

Explain the social and economic impact of the Portuguese to Africa

Economic Motives

·         Need to exploit valuable resources believed to exist in Africa such as gold, silver and ivory.

·         To create a Portuguese empire in the African coasts.

·         To secure the sources of gold that existed in Africa. Several regions of Africa such as Akan in West were the main sources of gold.

·         To find a sea route to India and Far East (famous for Spices) and this was in response the closure of the land routes to Asia by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

·         Need to monopolise Indian Ocean trade which for a long period was dominated by Arabs, Chinese, Indonesians and Indians merchants. The trade was profitable.

·         Need to control strategic points: East Africa provided bases for military troops in the mission of the Portuguese of controlling the East.

Social Motives

·         Religious: Portuguese wanted to spread Christianity in Africa and prevent further spread of Islam in Africa.

·         Personal initiative of the King of Portugal Prince Henry the Navigator who sponsored and encouraged the Pioneer Voyages.

·         Exploration: At the end of 13^th Century Western Europe had experienced the period of learning new knowledge and discoveries.This made people start to explore unknown land and sailing unmapped areas.

The Reasons for the Fall of the Portuguese Rule in East Africa and its Impact

Explain the reasons for the fall of the Portuguese rule in East Africa and its impact

The reasons for the fall of the Portuguese rule in East Africa

·         Resistances: The mounting resistance from the coast by feudal lords and traders who wanted to protect their political and economic interests.

·         Attacks from the interior tribes such as the Zimba and the Segeju from the Zambezi Regions.

·         The rivalries from the Dutch and the English merchants who had interests in Eastern trade.This brought about competition.These rivalries reduced Portugal's power in the East African Coast.

·         Portuguese weakness: Portugal was a small country without enough qualified and competent personnel to administer overseas business.

·         Tropical disease: The Portuguese suffered from tropical diseases and harsh climatic conditions.This made the area become unfavorable for the Portuguese settlements.

·         The Portuguese rule over East Africa ended in 1698 when Portuguese witnessed the fall of Fort Jesus in Mombasa which was their headquarters and one of the strongest Portuguese garrisons.

Impact of the Portuguese in Africa

Social Impact

·         The introduction of new crops in Africa such as maize and cassava which became staple food for many people in Africa.

·         Introduction of Portuguese words in Kiswahili language, such as meza, leso, gereza, mvinyo etc.

·         Decline of Coastal City states example Mombasa, Kilwa, Gedi which were once very rich and prominent.

·         Insecurity and loss of properties, due to the frequent conquest resistances and wars.

·         Spread of Christianity into parts of Africa.

Economic Impact

·         The decline of Indian Ocean trade because of diversion of major trade routes through the Atlantic Ocean.

·         The exposure of Africa to international trade. Africa became known to Europe and America due to explorations made by the Portuguese.

·         The decline of gold production in Mwenemutapa (Zimbabwe) after development of the conflict between Africa miners and the Portuguese.

·         Building of forts such as Fort Jesus in Mombasa attracts tourists in Kenya and generates income for the country.

Dutch Settlement at the Cape

The Motives of the Dutch Settlement at the Cape

Explain the motives of the Dutch settlement at the Cape

Southern Africa became the site of the earliest European settlement in the modern African history in 1652, when employees of the Dutch East Indian Company established a supply base on the shore of Table Bay, the site of the modern city of Cape Town.

Over the next 150 years, Dutch settlers on the land surrounding Table Bay and to the east along the coast, creating Cape colony.

As the Dutch settlements expanded, they encountered both indigenous Stone Age Khoisan and Iron Age Bantu African peoples. The earliest encounters were with Khoisan who were decimated, enslaved or forced to flee.

As subsequent generations of Europeans expanded further to the east, they encountered Bantu (mostly Xhosa) to became trading partners as well as armed opponents.

The Dutch settlers, called Boers (from the Dutch word for farmer)created very large farms and found it necessary to import labour, so Cape colony imported slaves while much of the rest of Africa exported them.

In their determination to reach the center of trade in India and the Far East, European merchants succeeded to around the southern tip of Africa in the 5th century.

A Portuguese merchant explorer known as Vasco Da Gama was the first to around the southern Africa cape in 1498. The southern cape was called the Cape of Good Hope because it was important in European trade with Asia. Sailors from Europe to the Far East and from the Far East to Europe used the following as a convenient stopping place for:

·         Refueling their ships

·         Getting fresh water

The climate at the cape was good and conducive for European settlement so the Whites started to establish their settlement there, the first White to make permanent settlement in the cape came from Holland in 1652.

The coming of Whites in South Africa is related to the economic development in Europe in the 16th and 17th century. This was a period of merchant capital i.e. mercantilism in Europe, trading transaction within and outside Europe were important in the development of European economies.

By 1652 the Dutch East Indian Company established the fort at Table Bay with the aim of supplying fresh produce to ship sailing to and from the East Indies. Gradually the settlers in the Cape Province started to spread further into the interior as they increased production of fresh fruits and other food stuff.

Having settled in the Cape land the White settlers became involved in barter trade with the indigenous inhabitants who by then were Khoi and San. Settlers used metal, beads, tobacco spirit to obtain cattle from the Khoi.

Besides the barter trade the White settlers also raided the Khoi herds, robbing bands of white stock farmer entered Khoi and Xhosa areas and shot people and returned to their settlements. They grabbed Khoi and Xhosaby force foragricultural land becausethey needed land to feed their animals after raiding them from Africans.

Motives of the Dutch settlement at the Cape

·         The need to control Indian Ocean trade which was dominated by the Portuguese

·         The need to establish farms

·         Favourable climatic conditions

·         Availability of raw materials for trade

The Impact of Dutch Settlements at the Cape

Discuss the impact of Dutch settlement at the Cape

The impact of the Dutch settlement at the Cape

·         Enslavement of Africans: The Dutch East India Company provided slaves from West Africa and West India to provide labour for their plantations and livestock. Boers had established large plantations where they kept animals and grew crops like potatoes, watermelon, pumpkins, pineapple and cucumbers.

·         Displacement of African people: Africans were forced to move from their normal productive areas to unproductive areas. Hence the Dutch displaced the native Africans from the fertile areas and took their livestock by force.

·         Social segregation: The Dutch thought themselves superior to Africans, they exploited and mistreated Africans as they were regarded as stupid,uncivilised and faithless thus, laying the foundation of racial segregation.

·         Expansion of Europeans settlement: Dutch activities led other Europeans like British and French to come to South Africa. However, the Dutch population grew dramatically, for example in 1652 Van Riebeeck arrived at the Cape with a few people, by 1662 the Dutch community had grown to 120 people and in 1685 the population increased to 150 Dutch families.

·         The increase of warfare: There were frequent wars between the Africans and the Dutch because the Dutch wanted to rule the Africans and take their land while the Africans demanded freedom. 1779 to 1781, 1789 to 1793 and 1799 to1803 there were Kaffir wars between the Dutch and the Xhosa.

·         Introduction of a new culture: The Dutch introduced a new culture to the Africans and ignored the indigenous culture. For example the new language known as Afrikaans based on the Dutch language and some words from other languages like Portuguese and Khoikhoi languages was born.

Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean Sea-Board and Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Slave trade in east Africa

Slave trade refers to the selling and buying of human beings as commodities. Africa experienced two types of slave trade.

1.       The Indian Ocean slave trade which was conducted by Asians.

2.       The Trans Atlantic Ocean slave trade conducted by European merchants.

Main peoples involved:

·         Arab traders

·         European merchants

·         African chiefs e.g. Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe

·         The Nyamwezi

·         The Kamba

·         The Yao

·         Baganda

·         Banyoro

·         Khartoumers

A SKETCH MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING THE AFRICAN PARTICIPANTS IN SLAVE TRADE

The Reasons for the Expansion of Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean Sea-Board from the 18th Century

Explain the reasons for the expansion of slave trade in the Indian ocean sea-board from the 18th century

Expansion of the Indian Ocean slave trade

Slavery was practiced since ancient times in Africa. In East Africa slavery was introduced during trade contacts with the Middle East and Far East as early as 2 AD. However slavery was only practiced on a small scale. Slaves were used as farm laborers, domestic servants, guards or soldiers but they were also entitled to some rights. Furthermore slave trade expanded in East Africa during the 18th century.

Reasons for the expansion of slave trade in East Africa during the 18th century

·         Great demands for slaves as soldiers and domestic servants in the Muslim nations of Arabia. Thus the slaves had to come from non Muslim regions like the interior of East Africa. There were major slave markets in Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba, Kilwa,Mikindani and Mombasa.

·         Slaves were needed as porters, they ferried goods such as ivory and gold from theinterior of Africa to the coast, especially to the American, Indian and British traders whotook part in it.

·         Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in Brazil. In the first half of 18th century Portuguese expanded their plantations. So their source of slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate hence they came in East Africa.

·         High demand for slave labour in French sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion Island. Initially the French depended slaves fro Mozambique but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply as a result the French came further North to East Africa in search of slaves.

The Techniques Used to obtain Slaves

Explain the techniques used to get slaves

Ways/techniques of obtaining slaves

·         Caravans organised by local chiefs: The local chief sold domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns and glass. E.g. Mirambo and Isike of Nyamwezi, Nyungu yaMawe of the Kimbu, Machemba of the Yao, Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda and Mkwawa ofthe Hehe.

·         Selling of criminals, debtors, tax offenders and social misfits in society by the local chiefsto the Arab slave traders.

·         Prisoners of war could be sold off especially after inter-community wars.

·         Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders

·         Raiding villages or weak communities: This would begin at night with gun shots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture.

·         Through inter tribe wars many African became destitute and these would be captured by the slave traders

·         Ambush, they were captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening.

·         Slaves were acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar

·         Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the Arab Swahili traders

MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES

The Social and Economic Effects of Slave Trade on the African Societies

Assess the social and economic effects of slave trade on the African societies

Social and economic effects/impact of slave trade on the people of East Africa

Positive effects

Introduction of new foods, the food introduced through trade routes such foods were maize, pawpaw, rice and groundnuts both at the coast and in the interior.

The increase of farming plantations, in some areas especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.

The interior was opened to the outside world this later encouraged the coming of the European missionaries. Many European Christian missionaries came to east Africa to preach against slave trade and to campaign for its abolition.

The trade routes became permanent routes and inland roads which led to growth of communication network.

Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo.

Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread, especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.

Formation of the new race called Swahili; this race was formed through intermarriages between Arabs and some Africans.

Growth of towns, there was growth of towns such as Tabora and Ujiji.

Slave trade encouraged large scale trade whereby contact was established between the trade masters and indigenous/local population.

Africans were dispersed to other parts of the world e.g. Arabia, America and West Indies. In Africa Sierra Leone and Liberia were founded to accommodate former slaves from Europe and America.

Negative effects

Depopulation of Africans: The people who would have great leaders and empire builders were killed. It is estimated that over 15 to 30 millions of people were sold into slavery while millions died in the process being transported.

Misery, suffering and a lower quality of life for the people in East Africa. This is because they were reduced to commodities and could be bought and sold.

Destruction of villages and families and broken up by slave raiders and never to be reunited, this later resulted in to loss of identity.

Diseases broke out among the slaves, for example the Spaniards introduced syphilis which spread to other traders.

Displacement of people: Many people became homeless and destitute and stayed in Europe with no identity.

Disruption of economic activities: This is because the young and able craftsmen, traders and farmers were carried off, causing economic stagnation as the economic workforce depleted.

Progress slowed down which resulted in famine, poverty and destitution and helplessness.

There was a decline in production of traditional goods such as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron which greatly hindered the cash economy.

Decline of African industries, which also faced a lot of competition from imported manufactured goods for example the bark cloth and iron working industries.

Introduced of guns to the interior, which caused a lot of insecurity and increased incidences of wars for territorial expansion

Clans and tribe units, languages were broken and inter tribal peace was disturbed for example Swahili language replaced the traditional languages in the interior.

The Psychological Effects of Slavery on its Victims

Assess the psychological effects of slavery on its victims

Slavery reduced Africans to more objects. The Arab slave traders and Caucasian slave owners looked down upon dark-skinned people. They considered them to be inferior and closer to animals than other races. Slaves were greatly mistreated. They worked for long hours under harsh conditions for no pay. They were punished severely for small mistakes and were even killed at their masters will. All of these resulted in psychological effects some of them being:

·         Damage of slave's self worth

·         Inferiority complex before their masters

·         Sufferings due to difficult work

·         Separation of families and homes

·         Loneliness

·         Stress due to unsure about their future, survival and food.Traumatize due to severe punishment

·         Insecurity

·         Fear and doubts

Triangular slave trade

The Atlantic slave trade is customarily divided into two eras, known as first and second Atlantic system.

The first Atlantic system

The first Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% for all Atlantic slave trade.

It started (on a significant scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain.

While the Portuguese traders enslaved people themselves, the Spanish empire relied on the Asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from other countries) the license to trade enslaved people to their colonies.

During the first Atlantic system most of these traders were Portuguese, giving them a nearmonopoly during the era, although some Dutch, English Spanish and French traders also participated in the slave trade after the union, Portugal was weakened with its colonial empire being attacked by the Dutch and British.

The second Atlantic system

The second Atlantic system was the trade of enslave Africans by mostly British, Portuguese, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders.

The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and Americas a number of European countries built up economically slave dependent colonies in the New World. Amongst the proponents of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins

Origin of Trans Atlantic slave trade

Te Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves off the coast of West Africa. They built a fort on Arguin Island (Mauritania) where they bought gold and slaves from Gambia and Senegal. Most of these slaves were taken to plantations in Portugal and Southern Spain.

By 1471 the Portuguese expanded their gold and slave trading activities to Ghana. In 1482, they built Elmina castle to serve as their base there.

Factors for the rise of triangular slave trade

The rise of capitalism: This mode of production depended on exploitation of one man by another. Capitalism emerged in Europe after the decline of feudalism in Europe especially the first stage of capitalism mercantilism where slaves became part of the commodities to be traded to accumulate wealth.

Discovery of marine technology: The invention of gun powder, ship building, compass direction, and motor engine acted as a pushing force for the rise of slave trade, it facilitated the transportation of the commodities and slave dealers.

The discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus on 24 October 1492 opened a new chapter as far as slave trade was concerned it brought high sky demand of cheap labour to work in the new plantations in the Caribbean islands.

The inability of indigenous people to provide cheap labour: Diseases such as smallpox eliminated the natives completely. In other cases such as south in south Carolina, Virginia and new England the need for alliances with native tribe coupled with the availability of enslaved Africans at affordable prices (beginning in the early 18th century for these colonies) resulted in a shift away from native American slavery. Native Americans were very reluctant to provide labour and most of them had been affected with plagues and war and they were very few in numbers. So Africans were the best alternative, therefore the rise of triangular slave trade.

Climatic conditions of the New World meant that Africans could easily live there since they were used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from Europe and Asia. They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World.

Prior knowledge about African continent brought by explores: Before the establishment of slave trade many explorers like Vasco Da Gama and Vasco Diaz-all from Portugal-had already navigated Africa and had discovered many sea routes between Africa and the outsiders such prior knowledge helped them to use Africans as slaves.

The expensiveness of White slaves: Before the mid of 17th century the European mercantilists depended on indentured labourers, criminal convicts, contract labourers and refugees from Europe who proved to be expensive and undependable compared to Africans who were not paid anything apart from their basic needs for survival and were slaves for life.

The basic reasons for the constant shortage of labour was that, with large amounts of cheap land available and lots of landowners searching for workers, free European immigrants were able to become landowners after a relatively short time, thus increasing the need for workers as slaves.

Accessibility between the New World and the West African coast, the distance from West Africa to the New World is very narrow bridged with Atlantic Ocean. Thus easy transportation of slaves from Africa

The establishment of more plantations in the New World which called for more demands of slaves initially it was only Portugal and the Dutch that had established plantations but towards the mid of 17th century France and Britain joined. This increased the demand for cheap labour.

The profitability factor: This acted as an attracting force for many mercantilists to join a trade based on unequal exchange imagine exchanging human being with spices, umbrella, gold, ivory with guns, mirrors and cloth.

Accumulation of wealth: Mercantilists accumulated a lot from this trade which enabled them to sustain super profits obtained and in addition to that, many crops could not be sold for profit, or even grown in Europe.

Exporting crops and goods from the New World to Europe often proved to be more cost effective than producing them on the European mainland. A vast amount of labour was needed for the plantations in the intensive growing, harvesting and processing of these prized tropical crops.

Western Africa (part of which became known as "the slave coast‟ and later central Africa, became a source for enslaved people to meet the demands of labour.

The existence of seasonal winds and currents like the north east trade wind, north equatorial current, the south west and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the vessels of the merchants to sail to Africa, New World and Europe.

Impact of the Triangular slave trade

Social effects

·         Depopulation: Many people died during slave raids or were sent abroad as slaves. E.g.400 millions of people were lost in Africa whereby 150 to 200 million were from Eastand Central Africa.

·         Separation of families: Some abandoned their homes due to insecurity, some died while trying to escape and some were taken away as slaves.

·         Fear and suspicion due to frequent wars, raids and ambushes.

·         Intermarriage between the foreigners and indigenous people.

Political effects

·         Decline of states, some states declined because they were weakened when their subjects were captured and sold as slaves. For example Wanyasa were greatly weakened by frequent slave raids from their Yao neighbours.

·         The rise of states: Some strong states arose due to accumulation of wealth from slave trade. E.g. the Yao state under Machemba, Nyamwezi under Mirambo and Bugandakingdom under Kabaka Mutesa.

Economic effects

·         Destruction of African subsistence economy: This was because many people engaged in the slave trade as slave dealers or they were taken as slaves so the activities like handcrafts,iron working, salt mining and pottery destructed.

·         Land alienation: Africans were robbed of their best arable land and were turned into serfs and tenants who had to sell off their labour to Arab land owners for their survival. Watumbatu and Waamidu provided their labour in coconut and cloves plantations.

·         Decline of production due to loss of manpower: Slave masters picked strong and healthy people leaving behind the old, sick and weak who could not work.

The Origins and Impact of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Africa

Explain the origins and impact of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in Africa

ACTIVITY TO DO

1.       Mention five commodities that were brought by early traders from the Far East and theMiddle East.

2.       Outline positive and negative effects of the contacts between people of Africa and thosefrom the Far East and Middle East.

3.       What were the reasons for the Dutch to settle at the Cape?

4.       Explain the causes and effects of triangular slave trade5. Mention five ways used to obtain and abolish slave trade in Africa.

TOPIC THREE

INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

At the end of this topic student should be able to:

1.       Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism

2.       Explain the demands of industrial capitalism

3.       Explain the roles of the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonisation

Demands of Industrial Capitalism

The Meaning of Industrial Capitalism

Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism

Capitalism is the social, political and economic system based on private ownership of the major means of production. It first developed in Europe during the fifteenth century when feudalism collapsed.

Under the capitalism system companies and individuals own and direct most of the resources used in production of goods and services. Capitalism underwent different stages before reaching its maturity. These stages included:

·         Commercial or mercantile capitalism

·         Industrial capitalism

·         Monopoly capitalism

The commercial or mercantile capitalism took place between the year 1500 and 1750 this was capitalism based on trade. The merchants obtained wealth through trade activities. A lot of wealth was accumulated during this period and therefore increased new demands that resulted into development of another stage of capitalism known as industrial capitalism.

The next stage was industrial capitalism; this was the period when machines begun to be used for production in industries. The transition to industrial capitalism was the period when mercantile capitalism was giving way to industrial capitalism.

The transition was manifested by five major events namely:

·         Political revolution

·         Agrarian revolution

·         Demographic revolution

·         Commercial revolution

·         Transport revolution

Therefore, the above mentioned revolution created a conducive condition for capitalism to enter in the second stag; industrial capitalism. This new stage was characterised by intensive competition among the industrial capitalists. They were competing in terms of production of goods and profit maximisation. This stage of industrial capitalism took place between the 1750s and 1870s.

The Demands of Industrial Capitalism

Explain the demands of industrial capitalism

There were several demands of industrial capitalism, but most of them were mainly economic. These included:

·         The need for raw materials

·         Markets

·         Areas for investment

·         Cheap labour

At the period of industrial capitalism there were also changes in the methods of production of commodities that the world was demanding in increasing quantities.

The new methods of production involved the invention of machinery and the investment of huge capital. Industrial capitalism began in England by the end of eighteenth century; other countries such as French, Italy, German and Belgium were growing into industrial nations.

This necessitated the high demand of industrial capitalism to advance several demands as explained below:

The need for raw materials

This was caused by increasing production due to expansion of industries which needed large quantities of raw materials supply. These materials included cotton, coffee, tea, iron ore, palm oil, sisal, sugar cane, tobacco and rubber.

The available raw materials could not meet the demand. At the same time they could not be produced in Europe at large quantities. This resulted into the search and control of the sources of raw materials.

The need for markets

Due to the investment of capital in production, industrial goods flooded the European markets. Overproduction and under consumption became a critical problem among the industrial capitalists hence they were forced to look for markets outside Europe

Areas for investment

Due to unreliable markets and high concentration of capital in Europe, profit marginalization occurred. As a solution new areas for investment were needed among other areas, Africa provided the best areas for investment of such capital

In Africa the tropical crops could do better compared to other countries it was also a good source for non agricultural raw materials such as minerals and forest products.

Need for cheap labour

Due to labour consciousness caused by working class in Europe and Britain in particular, the need to search for cheap labour become important. This was a measure taken to compete in production for profit maximisation.

Reasons for the increasing demand of industrial development in 19th century

Competition in industrial production:European capitalist nations increased the demand for industrial development as a result of competition in industrial production.

During the period before the nineteenth century Britain dominated the industrial production and was the leading major industrial nation in the world.

However, in the nineteenth century other European nations such as German, France, Italy and Belgium became industrial nations. The emergence of other nations in industrial development brought about competition for markets of industrial goods, raw materials and areas for investment. Therefore, the industrial nations were compelled to look for an alternative for that competition outside Europe, where they could sell their goods and collect raw materials.

Demands for raw materials: The highly demanded raw materials were cotton, oil, sugar cane, ivory, rubber and iron ore. Most of these raw materials could not be found in Europe in large quantities. In fact, those tropical crops could not grow in Europe. Following this Europe decided to produce such raw materials in Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia and China. In those areas raw materials were produced in large quantity than in Britain and other nations in Europe.

In Africa sugar cane plantation were established by the French in the Reunion and Mauritius Islands. The French depended on slave labour in those plantation the main sources of slaves was east Africa and some parts of southern Africa such as Mozambique.

The rise of other industrial nations: In the 1870s other European countries were industrialised this resulted in increased demand of raw materials. Therefore, it was difficult for one European country to obtain raw materials from other European countries.

It was also more difficult for one European country to export her manufactured goods to another European country. Each country was struggling to protect its domestic market industries and controlling its sources of raw materials.

American independence: Resulted in the development of the industrial sector. By the beginning of the 1870s, Europe could not easily enter U.S.A since it had introduced protective tariffs to keep out foreign manufactured goods and protect its industries. By the 1860s, markets for manufactured goods and sources of raw materials in Europe had greatly declined.

Accumulation of wealth: In order to ensure this they decided to invest the wealth that was being obtained in industries into other areas outside Europe.

Overpopulation and unemployment:The problem of overpopulation and unemploymentwas also rising in European countries. Therefore, the solution to those problems was sought outside Europe

The need for assurance of genuine and reliable markets and control of sources of raw materials: Europeemployed and sent agents to various important regions of Africa. These industrial capitalism agents prepared Africans for colonisation in future years. Therefore, in the early nineteenth century European activities in Africa were led by agents of industrial capitalism known as agents of colonisation.

Agents of Industrial Capitalism

There were about four groups of agents of industrial capitalism in Africa namely:

·         Explorers

·         Missionaries

·         Traders

·         Companies

·         Association

Explorers

During the nineteenth century the major aim of European powers was the exploration of Africa. In east Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant, Samuel Baker, Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo the prominent explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley. And in West Africa the prominent explorers included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr. Baikie, Gaspard Mollien and Cailie.

The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim was to gather information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent. They also wanted to know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of the main centers of population. Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport potentialities of African great river systems. For example the British explorer, Mungo Park in 1780s, followed by Clapperton and Richard Lander explored the Niger and gathered important information about the economy and politics of West Africa.

Roles of explorers

They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources: Clapperton reported about the river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of Lake Victoria and named it Victoria to honor Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.

They provided important information about the nature of African societies: They reported about thehostility, calmness and hospitality of the African people. This information played a central role for the European colonialists during the decision making process regarding the colonisation of Africa.

They explored important mountains and researched the geology, climatic conditions, topography, lakes and animal species in Africa:This knowledge later attracted European powers to colonise Africa.

They provided messages to their government about the existing evils of slave trade and the areas where slave trade was still conducted:Dr. Livingstone's third journey through Tanganyika and Lake Regions of central Africa was targeted for that as a result he informed the English that the Yao's land was still characterised by slave raids and the effects of slave trade such as sufferings, insecurity.

The information provided by explorers to their government was later used by humanitarians in the struggle against the colonisation of Africa.

Missionaries

By the 19th century missionary activities had started in Africa. The pioneers were the protestant churches of Europe and America. It was only later that Roman arrived especially from France. The domination of missionaries were the London missionary society, the church missionary society, Roman Catholic missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa (UMCA).

Few Christian missionaries were directly active agents of imperialism. They were essential ingredients of the increasingly assertive European access to Africa. However In most cases European Christian played an important role in promoting and shaping the advent of European capitalism.

The Roles of the Agents of Industrial Capitalism in Preparing Africa for Colonisation

Explain the roles of the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonization

The role played by missionaries in the colonisation of Africa

They acted as interpreters and propagandists at the time of treaty making:Mofat stayed among the Ndebele for about 30 years serving the British South African company (BSAC) for treaty making between the companies (BSAC) and King Lobengula.

They acted as advisors to African chiefs:The British missionaries of the church missionary society convinced Kabaka to accept protectorate.

They introduced Western civilisation to the interior through education and schools: Thisaimed to prepare people of low ranks to serving colonial masters at the time of colonisation.

Missionaries softened the minds and the hearts of Africans: Their activities were influenced by European imperialists' interests by preaching and emphasising the spiritual beliefs such as “give to God what which belongs to God," and "give to Ceaser what belongs to Ceaser”. In the long run this preaching weakened African opposition and shaped the regions for future colonial administration.

They converted Africans to the new faith: They were easily employed as puppets to extend colonial rule. Typical examples are the converts of Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Ghana who were able to protect the British economic interests and paved the way for future colonisation by the British.

Missionaries reduced resistance among African societies: This was done by converting some societies and preaching obedience to administrators.

Introduction of new crops: Horner grew coffee at Bagamoyo around 1870 the church missionaries society grew cotton in Uganda. This prepared people to acquire the skills which were important for future cash crop production during the colonial era.

They helped in the abolition of slave trade: Theyplanned for successful Christianisation of the freed slaves as they preached the word of God. They wanted to create the conducive and peaceful environment for the development of legitimate trade which was exploitative in nature and was after capitalists interests.

Missionaries had closer links with rulers and interfered even in political matters:They allied European imperialism while they were working in the interior of Africa. This situation provoked the hostility from African rulers. In this case missionaries appealed strongly for the protection from their home governments, which later led to effective colonisation.

Traders

Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa. They came under the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers.

Their main aim was to exploit the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which industrial capitalists had to invest their capital. Examples of traders are William Macknnon, James Stevenson, Harry Johnston and Carl Peters.

The role played by traders in the colonisation of Africa

They opened a new a exploitative system: Therefore, Africa became the target for European interests. This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations.

Introduction of circuit through legitimate trade: Thisinvolved the importation of European manufactured goods. Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries and the arts were destroyed.

Traders exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy: The use of currency, banking and credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of African resources. The fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to come into Africa.

They opened communication systems such as roads:This laid the foundation for future colonial infrastructure. For example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as Livingstone road was opened by traders and was used during the colonial administration.

Companies and associations

Companies and association were among the most important agents of colonisation of Africa. Agents organised themselves into companies and associations. They received finance from their home government so as to operate effectively and differently in those areas, where the governing powers had their economic interests. They aimed at financing the exploration that showed the interest of coming to Africa.

Examples of the association included the Royal British Geographical society, financed by John Speke to explore the river Nile. Another was the African Association of British, which in 1788 financed Mungo Park. Its major aim was to explore and identify the areas suitable for agriculture, which could produce enough materials for export. Another concern of that association was to identify the navigable rivers, mineral deposits and assessing the market available for industrial goods.

In the abolition of slave trade, merchant companies became increasingly involved in the interior of Africa. The major aim of these companies was to establish the so called “legitimate trade”. This was trade in commodities and other resources that industrial capitalist required as raw materials or as food for the urban working classes. The legitimate trade did not involve the selling and buying human

Several companies in Africa were established at strategic points for the purpose of collecting important commodities for export and supplying manufactured goods from Europe.

In East Africa examples of these companies were the Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C) founded in 1886 by William Macknnon. It was also known as the British East Africa Association. Another company was the Germany East African Company (G.E.A.C) founded in 1884 by Carl Peters. In West Africa examples of companies formed included the Royal Niger Company (R.N.C) which was formed by George Turban Goldie in 1884.

The association was concerned with commercial activities. King Leopold expected that the company could improve the lives of native as well as civilising them, exploiting natural resources and abolishing slave trade and slavery in the region.

In central Africa the company prevailed was the Livingstone central Africa Company (L.C.A.C). it was formed by Scottish capita lists James Steven in 1878.

In south Africa there was the British south Africa company (B.S.A.C) formed by Cecil Rhodes as a private company and operated in south and central Africa by the year 1889, the company was given a royal charter that included the full powers to administer the company.

The role played by companies in the colonisation of Africa.

Monopolisation and exploitation of African resources: These resources were highly needed by the European capitalists in their industries. In all parts of Africa Company played a crucial role of collecting raw materials and carried out trade activities.

Elimination of local middlemen and creation of custom duties and tariffs: These was carried out by the companies which attracted the imperialists powers to control Africa.

The companies encouraged their home government to colonise Africa: For example; the Royal Niger Company encouraged the British to colonise Nigeria after gaining the control of the different trading areas in the region.

Signing treaties: The company played an important role of signing different treaties with African local chiefs. These treaties helped imperial powers to claim and justify the colonisation of particular territories, especially during the Berlin Conference

One example was a treaty signed between Harry Johnston and chief Mandara of Uchaga in 1884 to control thirteen square kilometers of land in Kilimanjaro. Also Dr. Carl Peters of the society for German colonisation signed treaties with a number of chief between Pangani and Rufiji. These treaties were later used by the German government to control Tanganyika.

Creation of infrastructure: These included commercial centers, administrative headquarters, roads, railways and waterways. They were allocated in those areas where they operated where by later on were used by the imperial powers to transport administrators to colonise and impose laws on the land.

The companies laid foundations for their home government to colonise African:They suppressed African resistance through a police force used to maintain peace, order and stability within the region. For example in East Africa, the German East African Company recruited Swahili, Sudanese and Buganda soldier to counter the coastal Arab resistance of 1888-1889.

They provided important information about economic potentiality of African areas:Africa was exposed to the imperial powers which aimed to colonise the continent.

The companies provided rudimentary administration in areas of their operation: Some company leaders such as Sir. George Turban Goldie of the Royal Niger Company, Harry Johnston, the representative of Cecil Rhodes of the British South Africa Company, attended the Berlin Conference of 1884-188 5. They also notified the conference about areas where they operate on behalf of their mother countries.

The company played an important role of marking of the administrative boundaries: Which were later identified as boundaries of the European spheres of influence. They prevented any other rival European imperial power from taking their territories. This was evidenced in East Africa where the German East Africa Company marked the area of the German in the Anglo-German rivalry and achieved the 1886 agreement. While in South Africa the British South Africa Company managed to map the claims of Britain, thus preventing the Portuguese from interfering in the British sphere of influence.

Furthermore, the companies used their security organs to abolish slave trade in the areas of their influence. They introduced legitimate trade in Africa.

PICTURES SHOWING TRANSITION TO CAPITALISM

Abolition of Slave Trade

The British government began the abolition of slave trade during the years, 1822-1826. This was because of pressure by various groups based on different factors.

The Reasons for the Abolition of Slave Trade

Explain the reasons for the abolition of slave trade

Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity.

The formation of humanitarian movement in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.

Industrialisation in Britain, e.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and place for new investment of surplus capital

Formation of the anti slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787, its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.

Religious revival in Europe, Anglican preached and condemned slave trade as opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic pope also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England.

The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776, emphasised liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings, as a result people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive a fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.

The British desire to protect their national interests: British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters. This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar hence the need to stop over production

The rise of men with new ideas:Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.

Slaves had become less profitable: Yethad led to overpopulation in Europe. Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliaments) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies.

The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.

The Tactics Used During the Abolition of Slave Trade

Assess the tactics used during the abolition of slave trade

The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of anti-slavery movements. The British government abolished slave trade through anti slave laws (legislation), treaties and use of force.

The anti slavery movement was led by Granville Sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.

·         The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.

·         In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.

·         In 1817 British negotiated the “the reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.

·         Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835, Portugal 1842 and America 1862. In east Africa in 1822 Mores by treaty was signed between captain Moresby and sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's territories. British sips were authorised to stop and search suspected Arabs slave carrying dhows.

·         In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's East Africa territories i.e. beyond to the North.

·         In 1871, the British set up the parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in East Africa.

·         In 1872, sir. Bartle Frere persuaded sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.

·         On 5th march 1873, the sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from mainland and closed of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours

·         In 1876, sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.

·         In 1897, decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves

·         In 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.

·         In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika w hen British took over from Germany after the Second World War.

The Social and Economic Effects of the Abolition of Slave Trade

Assess the social and economic effects of the abolition of slave trade

Effects of the abolition of slave trade

Loss of independence, the suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both European and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.

It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasised peace and obedience thus the future European colonisation of East Africa.

Disintegration of the Sultan Empire: This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the east African nations. His empire in East Africa therefore began to crumble. This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create independent state in Manyema, where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire.

Closing of slave trade markets, for example Zanzibar in 1873 following the Frere treaty signed between sultan Barghash and Bantle Frere.

Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity

African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities.

Generally, abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa whereby Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda while Germany took over Tanganyika.

British Occupation of South Africa via the Cape

British at the Cape

Britain took control of the cape during the era of mercantilism in Europe. At the end of 18th century the British became interested in seizing the cape colony from the Dutch. During 1793 France invaded the Netherlands. King William V. sought refuge in Britain and also asked for protection for Dutch colonies and trading interests. During this time, the British already controlled India and the trade between India and Europe. In 1795 the British occupied the cape twice for a short period of time. From 1806 onwards especially when the Napoleonic wars ended in 1815 the Britain made a formal purchase of the Cape from the Netherlands for six million pounds sterling. Therefore British started to settle at the Cape in 1806.

The Motives for the British Interests at the Cape

Explain the motives for the British interests at the Cape

Motives for British interests at the Cape

·         To increase colonies: The British wanted to increase and expand her spheres of influence following this she decided to occupy the Cape.

·         Industrial revolution in Europe, following this British wanted to increase sources of raw materials, labour, and markets for her industries since the Cape were very productive.

·         Trade interests, Britain did not want another European power to control the Cape because that would interfere the smooth flow of trade between Britain and India.

·         The South African Cape was strategically located. It was an appropriate place for British ships to stop during their voyages to or from India. They could get fresh supplies adwater for the reminder of their journey.

The Tactics Used by the British to Occupy the Cape

Assess the tactics used by the British to occupy the Cape

Tactics used by British to occupy the Cape

·         Introduction of land legislation system: They aimed at discouraging pastoralism among Boers and to encourage sedentary farming since the policy limited the size of an individual's land. The Dutch thought that the British introduced the land law to take land from the Boers and redistribute it to the landless Khoikhoi so they opposed the land law.

·         Abolition of slave trade and slavery in 1807: The British government abolished slave trade in all their colonies and offered compensation for slaves but the money was only paid inLondon as a result the majority did not get their compensation. However, freeing slavesendangered the economic survival of the Boers as they depended much on slave labour.

·         Imposition of the English language as the as the language of administering the law and justice and the medium of instruction in schools in 1822. Hence English language replaced the Dutch as he official language.

·         Abolition of internal trade restriction imposed by the Dutch company officials on the farmers and other settlers at the cape. This created more trade opportunities as they could now trade freely without strictly control from the administration.

·         Introduction of the pass in 1809 to reduce the exploitation of African labour as the system required African workers to carry passbooks which indicated their residence and employment, and those who did not carry them were regarded as criminals. The pass prevented the Africans from moving from district to district or moving into areas occupied by Europeans.

·         Introduction of contract system, through this the Boers were to sign contracts with their workers. In those contracts they were to mention the wages and other fringe benefits that they gave to their workers. Therefore the Boers regarded the contract system as British interference in the traditional Boer-Africans relationship of master-servant.

·         Introduction of the Black circuit court system in 1811 in order to reduce acts of violence committed by European employers against African employees. The law angered the Boers who considered themselves a superior race and thus natural masters of the Africans.

·         Introduction of English law as the basis of the legal system in South Africa.

·         Provision of financial aid to the British settlers by the British government, this encouraged more of its citizens to immigrate to the Cape as a result in 1820 some 300 British settlers arrived in South Africa increasing the total white population by almost 12% within weeks.

The Boer trek/movement

The great trek( Afrikaans: Die Groot Trek) was an east ward and north ward migration away from British control in the cape colony during the 1830's and 1840's by Boers (Dutch/Afrikaans “farmer”).

The migrant were descended from settlers from western mainland Europe, most notably from the Netherlands, northwest Germany and French Huguenots. The great trek itself led to the founding of numerous Boer republics, the Natalia republic, the Orange Free State republic and the Transvaal being the most notable.

From the beginning of the 18th century the cape settlers expanded their territory towards the north and the east. These settling movements were led by the Trek Boers, white farmers who penetrated the hinterland looking for grazing land for their cattle.

The Trek Boers preferred the free and unrestricted life on their ox wagons and in tents to the more protected existence within the realms of town administration. The price they had to pay for their lifestyle was constant armed conflicts with native people. First the Khoikhoi successfully resisted the conquest of their residential and grazing land.

And from the turn of the century it was the people of the Xhosa living to the east, who stood up against the Trek Boers. Frequent skirmishes occurred, particularly in the Zuurveld in the east of the colony, to the boundary of the great fish river. In 1779, the first of the ferocious Xhosa wars broke out.

In the town communities the danger of a confrontation was also growing. Here the opposing parties were on one hand the citizens, aspiring to political autonomy, and on the other hand a weak, corrupt and almost bankrupt colonial administration.

The town's people demanded their independence from the colonial administration. In Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet, the first republics were proclaimed, although they only existed for a short time. The power struggle between citizens and administration ended with the landing of British ships at the cape and the annexing of the colony to the United Kingdom in 1795.

The Reasons for the Boer Trek

Explain the reasons for the Boer trek

British occupation of the cape allowed Boers to penetrate further into the interior.

Boers dislike laws imposed by British in the Cape Province which gave greater equality to non-Whites races.

Abolition of slavery, the British administration at the cape forced Boers to free their African slaves.

Boers dislike the system of land holding which was introduced by British i.e. Boers were to pay higher rent.

Misunderstanding between Boers stock farmers and British administration

Boers dislike the British government decision of using the English language as the language of the government and in courts.

Boers wanted to be outside of the British government authority.

The Effects of the Boer Trek

Assess the effects of the Boer trek

Creating of two Boer republics, that is the Orange Free State and South African republic.

Boers defeated black tribes on the way and took over their land and properties.

Establishment of apartheid policy.

Development of hostility between the Boers and British colonisers.

Africans were made property less labourers and squatters on Boers stock farms.

African land was alienated i.e. taken by foreigners

Intermarriage thus creation of Afrikaners.

BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ ACTIVITIES TO DO

1.       Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism

2.       Explain the demands of industrial capitalism

3.       Explain the roles f the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonialism

4.       Outline the major causes of the Boer Trek in South Africa.

5.       Write shot notes on the effects of the Boer Trek on people of South Africa.

6.       What are motives of the British at the Cape?

7.       Explain why the Boers managed to defeat the Africans in the interior of South Africa.

8.       Mention five tactics used by British to occupy the Cape.