TOPIC 3.CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Changes in Political, Ideological and Administrative Systems
In 1960‟s many
African states started to achieve their political independence. Following this
many of the African countries changed their political, social and economic
ideology for the sake of attaining developments in their nations after
colonialism.
The Factors/ Conditions which led to changes in Political,
Ideological and Administrative Systems after Independence
Explain
the factors/ conditions which led to changes in political, ideological and
administrative systems after independence
-Ideology
refers to the body of beliefs or principles belonging to an individual or group
which guides political and economic system in a given nation for example
socialist and capitalist ideology.
During
the struggle for independence many African states had developed multiparty
political system under capitalist ideology as a system to prepare them for
independence. For example in Tanganyika there were T.A.A and T.A.N.U while in
Uganda there were U.P.C. and K.Y.
Soon
after independence many African states as from 1960-1970‟s most of them
started change the political ideology from multiparty under capitalist ideology
to singe dominant party under socialist ideology.
Factors
for the change of political and economic ideology after independence
These
factors can be divided into two means internal and external factors
Internal
factors
-Promotion
of unity and solidarity among the Africans, the changes of political party from
multiparty to single party system aimed at promoting unity and solidarity among
the Africans since they were dominated by single ideology for example in
K.A.N.U in Kenya, C.C.M. in Tanzania and U.P.C. in Uganda.
-Avoidance
of political opposition from other parties, soon after independence most
African states expected to have peace and political stability for the national
development so they decided to adopt one party system in order to avoid
political opposition of other parties as they thought that having multiparty
system the national development could be threatened.
-Avoidance
of civil wars among the Africans, since in multiparty system every party
struggle to dominate political power, something that cause political
instabilities for it was viewed as a tool to divide masses basing on their
ethnic origin that may result into civil conflicts. For example in Rwanda and
Burundi the Tutsi fought the Hutu in for the domination of political powers.
-To
avoid the imperialist influence on local politics, since the multiparty system
emerged from imperialist nations thus most of African states after independence
decided to reject it turning to single party system as they thought that having
multiparty system could enable foreign influence into the local politics
through passing in other political opposition parties as some former colonial
power wanted to control their former colonies through opposition parties.
-Promotion
of good governance, they aimed at promoting good governance with political
stability through checking out corruption and misallocation of public funds for
example in Tanzania and Malawi.
Generally
in the system of administration they aimed at eradicating the racial
discrimination by upholding African dignity in the system of administration. As
after independence Africans states changed their political ideology so as to
set up a new system of administration under their own direction and control
whereby every African would be treated equally with dignity under the single
party system
External
factors
-The
role of USSR, the socialist bloc played a big role to the changes of political
ideology and administrative system in most of the African states. Since many
African countries adopted Marxist ideology that based on socialist ideology
resulted to the formation of single party system. For example the leader of
socialist bloc encouraged the formation of workers party.
-Support
from socialist states, many African states that adopted socialism after
independence received moral and material support from socialist states like
China and Russia.
-Bad
perception towards capitalist ideology, many of the independent African states
viewed capitalism as mode of production that is based on exploitation of the
recourses and masses thus they decided to adopt socialism as it was
discouraging exploitation
The Changes which Took Place after Independence
Analyse
critically the changes which took place after independence
Political
and administrative system took place in Africa after independence
Most African independent states undergo changes in the political
and administrative system through adoption of the following government system
· -
One party system, the post independence Africans allowed one
political party andavoided competing politics. The party in power dominated the
government and controlledthe state apparatus and other spheres of human
activities outside politics. But in 1990sone party system began to collapse
especially after the fall of USSR.
· -
Multiparty system, after the collapse of one party system
African independent statesadopted multiparty system especially during 1990s
· -
Military rule, independent Africans after few years adopted
military rule and they cameunder the control of military rule for example in
Egypt, Sudan and Uganda.
· -
Parliamentary system,
· -
Presidential system
· -
Federal system of government
Political
ideological adopted after independence
African countries adopted different political ideologies after
independence. Some countries adopted varieties of political ideologies
including;
· -
Liberal democracy, implying that they adopted capitalism example
of such countries included Kenya, Nigeria and Ivory Coast.
·
-Socialism, the countries that adopted socialism included
Tanzania, Ghana, Uganda and Zambia.
·
-Afro-Marxism, the countries adopted this ideology included
Somalia, Ethiopia under Mengistu,Mozambique and Angola among other countries.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Political,
Ideological and Administrative Changes in the Newly Independent African States
Assess
critically the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of political, ideological
and administrative changes in the newly independent African states
Political
strengths
-Development
of African independent political system different from those of colonialists
inherited at independence. The political system developed was characterized by
democracy for example in Tanzania the socialist system of government enabled
her to involve more citizens in government, unlike during the colonial era for
African leaders now determined the fate of their own people‟s political features.
-Opportunities
to cooperate and undertake various measures to advance the interests of the
continent this was due to the fact that African leaders were able to negotiate
with western nations more aggressively than during the colonial times when they
were treated as subjects. For example under the regional organizations in the
OAU they introduced several measures to uplift the welfare of their citizens.
-Africans
were able to collaborate with other less developed countries especially in the
NonAligned Movements
Administrative
system
Eradication
of racial discrimination and uphold African dignity in the system of
administration through running their own government.
Ideology
-Liberal
democracy through open competition for power between different political
parties , separation of power between the three pillars of government namely
the executive, the legislature and the judiciary
Pressure
groups and associations like trade unions are allowed to operate without
political harassment from the government.
-Minimization
of the gap between the poor and the rich
-Less
exploitation of workers by foreigners and the African merchants as the
government controlled provision of most basic services
-Promotion
of national unity by minimizing conflicts based on ethnic, regional or
religious consideration as all people work hard.
Weaknesses
of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent
African states
-Civil
wars most African countries have experienced civil wars since independence for
example Ugandan civil war lasted from the late 1970s to 1986 when president
Yowel Kaguta Museveni took control of the country. Also in Rwanda in 1994
during the genocide which killed over 800,000 people. However currently several
civil wars are still being experienced in the DRC and Somalia.
-Military
coups d‟état have
been experienced in many African countries including Nigeria,
Sudan, Libya, Ghana, Somalia, Ethiopia, Liberia, Mauritania and Guinea.
-Ethnic
affiliation most African citizens in political appointment and voting during
general elections try to pick a person from their ethnic groups or religion as
a leader in the hope that such a leader would reciprocate by rewarding or
giving them favors, this led to bitterness between different communities, clans
and religion in Africa something that resulting to civil wars
-Neo
colonialism through partnership with developed countries, for example former
colonial masters such as Britain and France continue to interfere in the
political affairs of African governments.
Services
provision such as education, health services and other services became a great
financial burden for governments.
Contribution
of political, ideological and administrative changes in the newly independent
African states
-Nationalism
struggle African governments were able to assist fellow African countries to
acquire political independence from colonial masters. For example the efforts
had done by other African governments in South Africa and Namibia.
-Training
of African citizens to undertake nation-building activities this changes
facilitated mobilization of African states to participate in national building
activities. For example the harambee spirit in Kenya was used to mobilize funds
to construct schools, health centers and other social facilities in order to
uplift the living standards of African citizens.
-Opportunities
of African countries to participate more in the activities of regional,
continental and international bodies like the United Nations Organizations and
the NonAlignment Movements.
Changes in Economic
Development Policies and Strategies
The Factors which led to Changes in Economic Developmental
Policies and Strategies
Explain
the factors which led to changes in economic developmental policies and
strategies
After
independence many African states experienced economic problems which inherited
from colonialism as colonialist aimed at maximizing profits and minimizing
costs as a result they applied different policies that left African states with
economic problem hence the changes in political, social and economic sector was
inevitable. Among of the factors that necessitated the changes of economic
development policies and strategies after independence involves the problems
inherited
Economic
and social factors
-Economic
crises, the colonial government left African states with economic crises due to
intensive exploitation of African resources both human resources and material
resources. For example the exportation of raw materials like agricultural
materials and minerals and importing expensive manufactured goods.
-infrastructures, most of African independent states experienced inadequate of
infrastructures such as schools, hospitals transport networks since the
colonialists failed to provide it in every region hence there were regional
imbalance development. For example there were no regional roads or railway
links between one region from another as most of the transport network
developed around the turn of the country to facilitate exportation of raw
materials from Africa and importation of manufactured goods from Europe. Not
only that but also the few infrastructure built needed repair hence the need
for changes of economic and strategies so as to copy with the situation.
-Economic
stratification in the society, after independence there were two classes that
of the peasants who lived in rural areas living in miserable poverty as they
depended on agriculture activities which had low prices and the other class of
bourgeoisie or working class lived in towns in a good standard of leaving
compared to the peasants in the rural areas. For example around 95% of the
populations were rural dwellers depended on agriculture for survival and only
5% the working class who lived in towns. Thus the need for economic changes to
help the majority who lived in miserable poverty
-Dependency
economy, after independence most of the African states characterized by
dependent economy as they did not produce what they consume and consume what
they did not produce. For example they produced raw materials and exported it
to the European nations especially to their former colonial masters and
consumed finished goods that imported from Europe. Following this situation
there was the need for economic changes.
-Inadequate
industries, African independent states experienced deindustrialization this was
due to the fact that the colonialists prepared Africa as potential market for
European goods that is why they did not industrialize Africa. Following this
after independence African states started to change the economic strategy as a
result they could industrialize.
-Cultural
dependence, the independent Africans wanted to develop their national culture
through abandoning the foreign culture that was established by the colonialist
before independence.
Political
factors
-Administration
centralization, the colonialist left Africa with highly centralized
administration system whereby central leader had got a lot of power in the
state as a result such system brought inefficient and incompetence leaders and
misdirection in administration. Hence there was a need to change political
system.
-Existence
of relationship between military structures and political administration, the
military structures was organized in the way that it was not separated from
political administration this resulted to the rise of coup de-tat for example
political juntas took over the political arena resulted to political
instability and economic sabotage.
-Tribalism
among the Africans, after the independence most of African states experienced
tribalism which influenced by multiparty political system as most of the states
were based on the personal ethnic or regional origin of a particular
politician, therefore this situation necessitated political changes.
-Foreign
administration structure, after independence national planning remained in the
hand of foreigners not only that but also most of the important sector like
financial and military sectors. Whereby foreigners were involved in political
issues
The Economic Development Policies and Strategies Adopted in
Africa after Independence
Analyse
the economic development policies and strategies adopted in Africa after
independence
African
countries after independence adopted different economic development and
strategies for the aim of accelerating economic development through heavy
infusion of capital investment either private, bilateral or both. The following
are common economic strategies adopted by African countries after independence.
Economic
strategies adopted after independence
-Establishment
of parastatals African governments established different bodies in order to
curtail the control of the African economies by foreigners and the relative
weaknesses of domestic capitalism. For example generation and transmission of
electricity, telecommunications, railways, postal and banking services
-Establishment
of schemes such as agricultural schemes aiming at promoting agricultural
developments and settlement schemes for the aiming to provide landless citizens
with adequate land; for example in Tanzania there was villagization policy was
part of this strategy while in Kenya land settlement schemes established in the
former white settlers farms.
-Authority
delegation soon after independence particularly in 1960s and 1970s African
countries delegated authorities from higher levels to lower levels of government
especially to provinces and districts for example Chilalu Agricultural
Development Unity (CADU) in Ethiopia, Lilongwe Land Development Program (LLDP)
in Malawi, the Special Rural Development Program (SRDP) in Kenya and Intensive
Development Zones (IDZ) in Zambia.
-Development
planning this involved setting targets to be achieved within a set period
usually based on five years plan.
-Economic
blueprint facilitated donor countries to support development projects and
achieving political support from the public.
-Establishment
of import substitution industries in different African countries in order to
promote industrialization, expand employment opportunities and build African
economies through exports.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of the Economic
Development Policies and Strategies Adopted in Africa after Independence
Assess
critically the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of the economic
development policies and strategies adopted in Africa after independence
The
strengths of the economic policies and strategies adopted in Africa after
independence
-Achieving
in measures of economic development especially many socialist countries; for
example Tanzania under Julius. K. Nyerere and Ghana under Nkwame Nkurumah
advocated self sufficiency in food production.
Improvement
of infrastructures soon after independence most African countries was having
inadequate and poor infrastructures like roads, railways and ports so they
decided to improve them.
-Expansion
of industries resulted by establishment of import substitution industries as an
economic planning with a view of improving and builds African economies through
exports.
-Mobilization
of Africans to participate in development following adoption of socialist
policy which required Africans to take charge of their economies for example
the Ujamaa village in Tanzania was useful in enhancing mobilization.
-Establishment
of training institutions with the view of training African public servants in
different fields in order to take part in development of their countries.
Weaknesses
of the economic policies and strategies adopted in Africa after independence
-Corruption
and inefficiency of public servants or government officials this was due to the
fact that the new public officers were not well acquainted with administrative
responsibilities. For example in 1990s the government of Kenya lost over 5.8
billion Kenya shillings because of high level of corruption involving senior
officials in government offices. Similar incident happened in Tanzania in 2007
where a number of senior officials were forced to resign because of high level
of corruption involving generation of electric power in the country
-Establishment
of settlement schemes in marginal lands and away from infrastructures like
roads and urban centers this hindered the implementation of agricultural
strategies.
-Emergence
of a wide gap between the rich and the poor in the country particularly in the
countries that adopted capitalist ideology for example in Kenya some parts like
urban centers and Nairobi attained more economic development than other parts
like the Coast Province, North Eastern and some parts of the lift valley
provinces. Not only that but also foreigners owned a lot of wealth in the
country and repatriated a lot of profits back to their own countries as the
system allowed for capital accumulation.
Contributions
of the economic policies and strategies adopted in Africa after independence
-Economic
growth facilitated by adoption and implementation of various economic policies
and strategies in the country. For example agricultural production increased
because of the need to produce more cash crops for exports, industrial raw
materials and food self sufficiency.
-Establishment
of new industries for processing raw materials and manufacturing goods
-Establishment
of dams for supplying hydroelectric power in the country; for example in
Tanzania dams like Mtera playing an important role of supplying hydroelectric
powers in the country
-Employment
opportunities this created by foreign investment especially in capitalist
economies like Kenya and Ivory Coast.
-Infrastructure
development most African countries established and improved infrastructures in
the countries for example in Tanzania a new railway line was established that
connected the country to Zambia through the assistance of Chinese government.
-Africanization
of the economy done by both socialist and capitalist countries, helped to bring
businesses which were formally controlled by foreigners under the control of
the indigenous people. Value
of agricultural activities most of African governments especially in socialist
countries like Tanzania made an attempt to recognize agriculture by grouping
small household farms in villages and encouraging collective production.
-Establishment
of new state-owned bodies or enterprises in different countries in the
continent through state driven development for example by 1985 there were over
400 state-owned corporations in Tanzania.
Provision of
Education in Africa after Independence
The Objectives of Education in Africa after Independence
Analyse
the objectives of education in Africa after independence
Changes
in provision of education in Africa after independence
After
political independence many African states inherited the colonial education
system which was contrary to their local education system and their
environments. As time went on African independent states adopted the policy of
educational expansion and education was considered as a human rights. Following
this the number of education institutions like schools and colleges were
increased and the system of curricular were modeled. Not only that but also all
the education policies focused on re addressing the weakness and objectives of
the nation.
Objectives
of education in Africa after independence
-Provision
of relevant education to the Africans, independent African states recognized
the weakness of the colonial education as it was irrelevant and inadequate in
terms of meeting the needs and requirement of the newly created states. Hence
they ensured the education provided was relevant to the demands of African
countries.
-To
eradicate education dependence, the African independent states aimed at
eradicating the dependence on the European powers so they decided to review the
education policy so as to make it suit the African context.
-To
eradicate tribalism and racism in Africa, this was due to the fact that the
colonialists had already planted the seeds of racism in education system as
there were classes in education following this the changes in education system
after independence was necessary so as to eradicate the racism and tribalism in
Africa.
-To
promote African cultural values, this was more important since the African
cultural values were neglected by the colonialists through glorifying and
practicing the white’s culture which they viewed as superior than that of the
Africans, therefore this situation necessitated the changes in order to promote
the African cultural values.
Generally
the education brought by the Africans aimed at unifying people national wide,
promoting economic development, self r9eliance, social justice, equity and
scientific literacy.
The Features of Education in Africa after Independence
Appraise
the features of education in Africa after independence
-Expansion
of secondary and higher education, e.g. by 1966 enrollment in higher education
in east Africa had increased almost three times.
-Training
of local staffs, the African independent focused on training the local staffs
to replace the European expatriates as they were supposed to leave the African
continent free governing themselves.
-Provision
of academic education, since during the colonialism Africans were usually
provided with vocational training due to existence of racial discrimination
following this African independent state made great efforts to acquire academic
education
-Expansion
of primary education, independent African countries expanded primary education
under Universal Primary Education (UPE) program, whereby the government adopted
this and soon shifted emphasis from provision of high level skills to basic
education. For example in Tanzania the government took various measures to
expand primary schools especially from 1973 to 1977.
-Provision
of free education, many independent African nations provided free education to
all school age children who are supposed to be enrolled in primary education.
Thus the education was made free of charges as there was no payment of school
fees and it was compulsory to all school aged children. This was practiced for
the aim of enabling access to education for all Africans.
-Revision
of curriculum, after independence the curriculum was revised so as to ensure
its relevance to the learners. For example in Tanzania there was emphasis on
the history of Tanzania, elimination of selection process. Not only that but
also teachers training and establishment of new classrooms.
-Introduction
of education for self reliance, after independence schools were advised to put
emphasis on useful values such as equality, honest responsibility, cooperation
and community involvement rather than focusing on academics only. A good
example for this is Tanzania under socialist ideology.
-Curriculum
integration, the African schools were asked to integrate work into the
curriculum as results students/children could appreciate the value of the
manual work.
Emphasis
on adult education, since after independence there were a large number of
illiterate adults so the education institutions with the support of government
emphasized on adult education
The Strengths and Weaknesses of Education in Africa after
Independence
Assess the
strengths and weaknesses of education in Africa after independence
Strengths
of education in Africa after independence
· -
Expansion of enrollments in both primary and secondary schools.
·
-Freedom of teaching African cultural values and history to the
students.
· -
Development of universities in Africa. E.g. in east Africa there
was Makerere University, Nairobi University and the University of Dar es salaam.
· -
Reduction of dependence education on outside expatriates.
· -
Improvements of University education in Africa through
collaboration between African universities and metro pole universities following
the quality of education are being harmonized.
· -
The increase of literacy rate in African countries following the
compulsory and free education program. E.g. in Nigeria the rate of illiteracy
rise.
· -
Expansion of education facilities due to citizen support. E.g.
the Harambee or self-help effort in Kenya.
Weaknesses
in the expansion of education in Africa after independence
· -
Inadequate resources to meet the growing demand resulted by
large enrolment in primary schools under universal primary education (UPE). Such
resources are classes, desks,laboratories, libraries, books and teachers.
· -
Lacks of experience on vocational courses, the academic teachers
was having no experiences in teaching practical courses like agricultural
courses.
· -
Problems in using English language in secondary and higher
education as medium of instructionthis is due to the use of Kiswahili language
as a medium of communication in primary schools asa result student failed to
communicate in English when they are in higher education.
· -
Gender gap, most of African literacy were men this inherited
from colonialism where girls wereleft aside without enrolled in school as a
result even after independence there were higher rateof illiteracy among women
than men especially in the higher levels of education.
· -
Under development in higher educational institutions especially
from 1980’s due to provision of inadequate resources to support higher education
for example lack of enough library materialsand laboratory equipment since
independence.
· -
Unemployment, most of the university graduates was facing the
problem of being unemployed due to few employment opportunities.
· -
Shortage of teachers, especially after independence this was due
to higher enrolment of pupils in primary schools and few teachers training
colleges existed.
Changes in the
Provision of Health Services after Independence in Africa
The
health care facilities of most African countries were inherited from
colonialism that were used to care the Europeans and civil servants and few and
poor medical facilities caring the ordinary citizens. Most of them were
allocated in urban areas unlike in villages especially in capital cities.
In fact
most of Africans preferred traditional medicines offered by the traditional
doctors in their communities. This was due to the fact that imported medicines
from overseas provided in a modern hospital were very expensive t the extent
that most Africans could not afford them.
After
independence the dominant diseases that affected people to the large extent
were bilharzias, malaria, typhoid, polio, measles, cholera, tuberculosis.
In
Tanzania health services have been provided by the government, national
parastatal agencies, and churches, local and international voluntary agencies.
Government put more emphasis was to rural areas through funds allocation as
health centers and dispensaries were established.
The Objectives of Health Services after Independence in Africa
Analyse
the objectives of health services after independence in Africa
Objectives
of provision of health services after independence
· -
To uplift the standard of living of the people
· -
To promote the health of the people
· -
Expanding health facilities for the citizens
·
-Reduction of imbalance in the provision of health facilities
between urban and rural areas
·
-To stop the high infant mortality rate and high maternal death
rate during child birth
The Features of Health Services after Independence in Africa
Appraise
the features of health services after independence in Africa
Features
of health services in Tanzania after independence
·
-It is provided by the government, churches, local and
international voluntary agencies.
· -
It is based on benefiting rural areas and support for preventive
rather than curative aspects of health services
· -
It emphasizes on the need to provide basic needs including
housing, water supply and healthcare
·
-Allocation of more fund in the provision of health services by
the government
·
-Provision of health services free of charge until the 1980’s
· -
Introduction of user charges in the government hospitals after
1980’s
The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Provision of Health Services
after Independence
Assess the
strengths and weaknesses of the provision of health services after independence
Weaknesses
in the provision of health services in Africa after independence
·
-Lack of human resources, especially well trained health
personnel this is due to the fact thatduring colonial rule many Africans were
not trained by the colonialists.
· -
Corruption, most of the civil servants in health sector are not
faithful as they had beenpracticing corruption through selling of government
funded medicines at a throwaway price tounscrupulous business people something
that result to suffering among the populations.
·
-Inadequate financial resources, most of African countries
experience lack of enough funds toprovide quality health services to whole
country free or at low cost following this access topersonnel health care has
therefore remained the privilege of a few people in society. Forexample rural
areas are neglected as good services are mainly available in the urban centers.
· -
Poor planning and lack of resources to support the provision of
health services, for example poor provision of infrastructure, clean water and
transport has affected the delivery of health services.
·
-Dependency on donor funding who provide conditions to the
African countries under Structural Adjustment Programs. For example the
introduction of cost sharing policy discouraged many poor people from seeking
good medical attention.
·
-Failure to research on local traditional medicines has led
African governments to spend a lot of resources in buying medicines from other
parts of the world.
· -
Existence of incurable diseases like HIV/AIDS, cancer and
diabetes has created heavy burden to most African countries since they require a
lot of financial resources and time in caring. Forexample by the end of 1980’s
over six million people had been infected in the continent
Strengths
of provision of health services in Africa after independence
· -
Expansion of health facilities like hospitals, dispensaries and
health equipments has been expanded through constructional activities and
provision of health equipments.
·
-Provision of health services in both urban and rural areas for
example most hospitals were allocated in urban centers while most of
dispensaries were allocated in rural areas so as todelivery health services to
the people of urban and rural areas.
·
-Training of African health personnel who take charge of the
health sectors in the countries. Forexample medical doctors, nurses and other
caregivers.
· -
Eradication of epidemic diseases that existed in Africa for a
long time this was done through the provision of vaccines for diseases like
polio and measles.
· -
Establishment of many medical training institutions for example
medical training centers and universities for training health practitioners.
· -
Establishment of research centers I most African countries with
a view to investigate causes of certain ailments and seeking for the cure.
· -
Adoption of alternative medicines to tackle health problems.
· -
Reduction of infant mortality rate.
Changes in the
Provision of Water Services in Africa after Independence
In
African countries provision of clean and safe piped water during colonialism
was mainly available in urban centers particularly in the European
neighborhoods, African residential areas lacked clean water supply especially
in rural areas where people continued to trot for many kilometers in search of
water for human activities and for their livestock.
Soon
after independence most African countries inherited colonial system of water
provision that was very inadequate, disorganized and imbalanced in nature this
was due to absence of government policies focusing on national water provision.
As time
went on most African countries recognized the importance of having clean, safe
and reliable water supply because provision of water is the only way of
sustaining a healthy population. Following this they started to put emphasis on
water provision through establishment of different strategies, projects and
programs that ensures the provision of water supply in the country.
The Objectives of the Provision of Water Services in Africa
after Independence
Analyse
the objectives of the provision of water services in Africa after independence
Objectives
of provision of water services in Africa after independence
·
Improvement of the provision of clean and reliable water supply
to the citizens
·
Provision of equitable distribution of infrastructures in the
country
·
Improvement of levels of sanitation in the country
·
Expansion of more land for irrigation in order to be self
sufficient in food production
·
Uplifting standard of living of the people by providing more
reliable water supply
Weaknesses
in provision of water services in Africa after independence
·
Limited access of water supply, only few people accessed clean
water and good sanitation in the whole country. For example in Ghana only 32% of
the population had access to clean water and good sanitation by 2005.
·
Unequal distribution of clean water between urban and rural
areas
·
Existence of natural hazards, like droughts even when there is
plenty of water that could be tapped for irrigation many farmers suffered from
drought. Drought has led to the shrinking of water resources like dams and
rivers.
·
Lack of skilled personnel who could repair and install
facilities to supply water to residents.
·
Lack of financial resources as a result most government do not
prioritize provision of good sanitation following this many people loose lives
due to water transmitted epidemics including cholera typhoid and dysentery.
·
High water charges, water firms charge high tariffs for
provision of water as a result poor faced limitations from accessing clean and
safe water.
·
Corruption and embezzlement of some water companies workers
whereby they engaging in corruption and embezzling funds meant for water
provision. For example this has been a big challenge for the city council of
Nairobi since independence.
Success and Failures in the Provision of Water Services after
Independence
Evaluate success
and failures in the provision of water services after independence
Achievements
in the provision of water services in Africa after independence
·
Establishment of water infrastructures for example water pipes
·
Establishment of water treatment plants to treat clean water and
supply it to the areas with no clean and safe water
·
Building of dams for water preservation in rural areas for human
being and their animals
·
Protection of water resources through reforestation to preserve
water resources.
·
Provision of education to the mass advising them to boil
drinking water in order to avoid water transmitted diseases like typhoid.
·
Licensing companies to provide clean bottled water to citizens
in order to reduce drinking unsafe water
Changes in the
Provision of Housing Services after Independence
Since
1960s most African countries were experiencing population increase especially
in urban areas, as a result most countries found it very hard to cope with the
demands created by the new development. For example it became difficult to meet
the basic services like provision of water, housing and health services.
The Objectives of the Provision of Housing Services after
Independence
Analyse
the objectives of the provision of housing services after independence
Objectives
of provision of housing services in Africa after independence
·
Promotion of sanitation so as to avoid unnecessary suffering and
to increase their life expectance.
·
Promotion of standards of living through establishment of modern
housing for Africans.
·
To enhance development in the country through promotion of
better planning in urban centers.
·
Eradication of racial discrimination in residential
neighborhoods.
·
Provision of enough accommodation spaces for the citizens and do
away with slums especially in urban centers.
The Pattern of Housing Distribution after Independence
Appraise
the pattern of housing distribution after independence
The
patterns of housing distributions after independence
·
The best and quality houses in the continent have been in the
main urban centers such as Nairobi, Mombasa, Harare and Dar es Salaam.
·
Soon after independence the best houses in urban centers was
owned by or inhabited by the European and Asian communities, while most African
communities occupy the poorly constructed houses.
·
Expansion of slum areas in African countries, for example Kibera
in Nairobi and Soweto in South Africa slum areas has been common.
·
Mark of the main urban centers in the cities was skyscrapers and
tall building.
·
Rapid growth of African population in main urban centers and in
smaller towns especially among the low income groups all over the continent soon
after independence. For example in Dar es salaam population growth rate rose by
14% between 1957 and 1967.
·
Urban areas was characterizing by haphazard planning while in
rural areas characterized by houses constructed using local materials.
The Steps taken to Change the Colonial Pattern of Distribution
of Housing after Independence
Assess the
steps taken to change the colonial pattern of distribution of housing after independence
Steps
taken to change the colonial patterns of housing distribution in Tanzania after
independence
After independence the government of Tanzania did not have a
systematic policy on how to deal with the challenges of urban growth however
the following measures were taken to improve housing distribution in Tanzania
after independence.
·
Control of building and land strategy so as to alleviate
pressure on urban housing and community services, through creation of new
residential areas and prohibiting residential in some areas which are densely
populated.
·
Establishment of National Housing Corporation (NHC) for the aim
of providing housing needs through financing. Furthermore NHC took over the
management of the low cost houses which had been put up by the local government
in Dar es Salaam and put up new houses after clearing part of the squatter
settlement in the capital city.
·
Control of land allocation in the country by the government,
especially those freehold to government ownership and previous
owner were expected to pay rent to the government. Conditions on development of
land in urban areas were laid down to all. However priority on plot allocation,
site and services schemes was given to low income areas in the urban centers.
·
Decentralization of the number of functions with the aim of
locating new industries away from capital cities like Dar es Salaam. Also
minimization of resource allocation to urban development for the sake of
spreading benefits to all classes.
·
To stimulate development by relocating the capital city from Dar
es Salaam to Dodoma300miles (480 km) west. This was a plan announced by the
government in 1973.
·
To emphasize on the need of making use of low cost materials for
construction purposes to provide housing for more people rather than following
international standards blindly.
Challenges
facing the provision of housing services after independence
·
Inadequate of qualified human resources, for example lack of
skilled personnel like town planners to help in planning and implementing the
desired programs in most African countries.Following this there were slow pace
in the implementation of housing projects as a result 70% oflow income housing
in Dar es Salaam was part of the slum clearing projects.
·
Ignoring the low income earners by giving the priority to the
middle income earners while low income earners getting disadvantaged at the
project implementation stage.
·
Inadequate financial resources, the government expected and
depended much overseas funding for the project of the housing programs.
Following this most of the medium sized construction firms died as they depended
on investments in higher income residential properties.
·
Bias in fund allocation, more taxpayers’ money was used to fund
establishment of better housing for the middle class in society and less funds
were allocated for the housing of the poor.
·
Lack of commitment among the government officers especially in
the middle income cadres who did not embrace some of the new policies this was
due to insufficient training among the political leaders and the government
officials responsible for the implementation of the projects in the most
countries.
·
Financial irregularities in the National Housing Corporation due
to the fact that most beneficiaries of the new housing schemes were unable to pay
their rents to the NHC thereby undermining its efficiency. For example in 1976 a
number of NHC employees including the general manager were terminated due to
financial irregularities.
·
Unnecessary bureaucratic procedures for one to get funds for
house construction as the procedures could take several years for one to be
funded this undermined the projects development.
·
The use of expensive and unsustainable house design and
materials as a result most countries failed to be innovative in designing house
for the low income earners in the continent.
Achievements
of housing distribution after independence
After independence the government succeeded on the following;
·
Reduction of inequalities in the income between the highest and
the lowest income earners through provision of reasonable houses by local
authorities in different countries.
·
Decentralization of development for the promotion of development
in other parts of the country. For example in Tanzania decentralization was made
when Dodoma became the new capital city of Tanzania.
·
Owning of homes in urban centers by the majority through sites
and service schemes in Kenya and Tanzania.
·
Provision of employment opportunities for Africans through
establishment of new housing schemes. For example they provided plumbing, carpentry,
electrical installation and other important services to the residents.
·
Provision of new investment opportunities to many people due to
expansion of the housing markets. For example the investment was made through
establishment of high class hotels,tourism centers, commodities modernization,
airports and importation of luxury commodities for the benefits of tourists from
western countries.
Establishment of
National Military and National Legal Institutions
After independence, African governments established their own
armed forces and police for the purpose of ensuring security. Tanzania
established her own military force called Tanzania People’s Defense Forces on
1st September 1964. It comprised of four branches namely
1. ) Land
Forces Command
2. ) Naval
Command
3. ) Air
Force Command
4. )
Military Intelligence
The Objectives of Establishing National Military and National
Legal Institutions
Analyse
the objectives of establishing national military and national legal
institutions
Objectives
of establishing national armed forces
·
To provide assistance during national emergencies
·
To participate in nation building activities
·
Promotion of internal security and integrity
·
To protect the country from external aggression
·
To detect and fighting off criminals
·
To ensure peace in the country
The Functions, Strengths and Weaknesses of National Military
Forces and National Legal Institutions
Assess the
functions, strengths and weaknesses of national military forces and national
legal institutions
Functions
of the national armed forces
·
To safeguard the national security of the country from external
aggression. For example Tanzania military force took part in the military
campaign against the forces of Idd Amin of Uganda in 1978. Similarly to Kenyan
military force took part in campaigns against the Shift abandits from Somalia in
the 1970’s.
·
To preserve internal security. For example Kenya in 1978 during
the attempt coup d’etat when Kenya Army fought off some elements of the rebel
Kenya Air Force who wanted to take over the government using unlawful means.
·
To participate in nation-building activities for example road
and bridge construction.
·
To provide assistance to the public during national emergencies.
For example during floods,famine, fire outbreaks and other national disasters.
·
To detect and fight off criminals who use water masses like the
Atlantic and Indian Ocean to commit crimes. For example the Somali pirates,
narcotic runners and gunrunners as well as illegal trawlers who steal fish and
other marine resources from African states.
·
To participate in peace keeping missions in different parts of
the world by participating in United National, African Union and Commonwealth
peacekeeping duties.
Weaknesses
of national military forces in Africa after independence
·
To abort coup attempts and overthrowing their governments
·
Corruption in the running of operations for example military
officers from Zimbabwe was accused for having smuggled gold and other mineral
resources during peacekeeping operations in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
·
Tribalism and sectionalism
·
Inadequate funds for soldiers payments
·
Indiscipline for example some soldiers have been accused of
looting and raping civilians.
·
Lack of financial resources and modern military equipments
·
Dependence from developed countries for example some African
countries depend on European and USA countries in training and equipping their
armies.
·
Low level of education the majority of the military personnel
were not well educated in Africa for a long time due to the fact that military
career was not taken as a prestigious occupation.
Strengths
of national military forces in Africa after independence
·
A lot of military personnel in recent years have been enrolled
in institutions for higher education and have improved their image while
relating with members of the public.
·
Safeguarding the national security of the country from external
aggression.
·
Preserving internal security.
·
Participating in peace keeping missions within and outside the
country.
·
Participating in nation-building activities
·
Assisting the public during national emergencies.
·
Detecting and fighting off criminals
National
legal institutions
The
national legal institutions include judiciary however; there is close
coordination of different departments in the government in making sure that the
law and order are preserved without denying anyone his or her rights in
society. This can be witnessed through their different functions in the
country. For example when the police force and the armed forces ensure
preservation of national security and integrity the judiciary ensures the
administration of justice through the court of law.
Objectives
of the national legal institutions
·
To settle disputes among different parties
·
To guarantee rule of law for all citizens
·
Assisting in the law development
·
Constitution protection
·
Administering justice in the country
·
To swear in senior members of government like the prime
ministers and presidents
Functions
of the national legal institutions
·
They settle disputes among individuals and between the
individuals and the state.
·
They administer justice through law interpretation
·
They spell out the penalties to be meted out to offenders and
the amount to be compensated to the offended part.
·
They ensure citizen’s protection under the law and to sentence
accordingly those who violate the rights and freedoms of others.
·
They protect the national constitution by ensuring that
everything in the country is done within the constitutional provisions in each
country
·
They safeguard national sovereignty through swearing in of
senior members of government.
Strengths
of the national legal institutions
·
They are based on equality and fairness of all the parties
·
Training of legal officers in different countries
·
They guarantee the justice for all the parties
·
The legal system is flexible and embraces some of the
traditional methods of conflict resolution.For example Islamic courts are given
rooms to handle cultural and religious matters in African legal systems with a
large population of Muslims.
Weaknesses
of the national legal institutions
·
Some of them are corrupt for example in Kenya many magistrates
and judges lost their jobs in2003 following allegations of corruption.
·
Incompetence of some judiciary officers who fail to prioritize
important issues in the legal system and underfunding of the institutions
·
Interference of some senior members of the executive in the work
of legal institution there by undermining administration of justice in the state.
·
Illiteracy and ignorance of the citizens hampered the efficiency
in the administration justice by legal institutions.
·
Dependence on other government departments like armed force and
police force as they cannot operate efficiently in the absence of support from
these departments.
·
Lack of financial resources to hire enough officers to assist in
the administration of judiciary.
·
Interference of cultural traditions in the operations of the
legal institutions as some community applies cultural methods of administration
of justice, some of which contradict the official legal institutions for example
traditional forms of compensation or avenging crime among clans.
The
police force
In Tanzania the national police force comprises the following
departments or sections
·
The Regular
·
Firefighting Unit
·
Anti-Stock Theft Police
·
Traffic Police
·
Native Intelligence Services
Other
sections include Criminal Investigation Unit, Game Reserve Unit, Field Force
Unit, Anti-Narcotics Police, Police Air Wing, Flying Squad and the General
Service Unit. In Kenya there are some similar departments like those found in
Tanzania however their police comprise a unit known as the administration
police, whose work is to assist officers in the provincial administration.
Objectives
of establishing a national police force in African countries after independence
·
To ensure maintenance of law and order
·
To protect the law and preserve both life and property
·
To investigate crime and prosecute offenders
·
To arrest and detain suspected offenders
·
To assist the public especially during emergencies
·
To regulate traffic and punish offenders
Functions/responsibilities
of the police force
·
Maintaining law and order by arresting and punishing the law
breakers.
·
Safeguarding people’s life and properties
·
Detecting those about to commit the crime
·
Investigating the crime and prosecute the offenders
·
To confine suspected criminals in remand
·
Regulating tariffs and arrests the offenders by checking for
defective vehicles on the roads inorder to safeguard life.
·
Provision of assistance during national emergencies
·
They take part in national projects like constructional
activities of national infrastructures andfacilities.
·
Provision of entertainment in marking national days like
Independence Day, Union Day inTanzania while in Kenya Jamuhuri Day and other
national holidays.
·
They investigate and arrest international criminals such as
terrorists, drug traffickers and the notorious Somali pirates who harass water
vessels playing the Indian Ocean.
Challenges/weaknesses
facing the national police forces in Africa
·
Lack of efficient transport and communication equipment for
discharging their duties efficiently.
·
They have been accused of being involved in corrupt practices
for example demanding from the public and failing to do their duties according
to the law.
·
Recruitment of people with law academic qualifications in the
force
·
Interference with police work by politicians and senior servants
·
The influx of small armies in the continent as a result some of
the criminals posses more sophisticated weapons than the national police.
·
Poor relationship between the police officers and the citizens
due to the use of harsh methods by the police officers in their work to the
citizens/public as a result public fear to pass useful information to the
police.
·
Terrorist disturbances to the police force for example in 1998
both the American Embassies in Tanzania and Kenya was bombed by terrorists.
Moreover, Uganda suffered a terrorists bombing attack in July 2010.
·
Cyber crimes resulted from modernization of information
technology whereby some criminals use the internet to steal from banks and from
innocent people not only that but also the use of cell phones to defraud
innocent members of the public.
Problems Hindering
Development in Africa after Independence
African
continent has faced a number problem since independence that hindered
development over the years. These are social, political and economic problems.
The Social, Political and Economic Problems Hindering
Development in Africa after Independence
Analyse
the social, political and economic problems hindering development in Africa
after independence
Social
problems
-Illiteracy,
Africans experiencing illiteracy since some people are unable to read or write,
this is attributed by some of the cultural traditions of the people and
sometimes failure of government to provide conducive environment for schooling.
For example failure to provide enough educational facilities like school
infrastructures for the communities has made it difficult for some children to
access schooling.
-Poor
living conditions, most of the Africans are poor following this the parents are
unable to provide uniforms and other school materials to facilitate the
education of their children. Poverty also led some student to drop out from
school in order to work and provide to their siblings and parents.
Diseases,
African countries since independence have been experiencing diseases both cured
and uncured resulted by environmental pollution, poor sanitation and poor
hygiene, careless in eating habits, poverty and ignorance. Examples of the
serious disease that affect African people include malaria, dysentery, HIV/AIDS
and tuberculosis. Following this most people loose lives unnecessarily
especially in the rural areas where health centers are few.
-Religious
differences some African country experienced serious religious differences that
led to religious wars and country division. For example in Nigeria and Sudan
some of the Islamic groups have advocated for the introduction of sharia or
Islamic law in some parts of the country while Christian and African
traditional religions therefore this intensified conflict in such countries.
-Fear
and insecurity, some African people are forced to flee from their homes and
rendered refugees due to several factors including electoral disputes, land and
water resources conflicts. Since these people flee from one African country to
another within the continent this led to highest number of refugees in African
continent than other continent, For example in eastern Africa there are
millions of refugees from Burundi, DRC Congo, Sudan and Somalia, living in
refugees camps in neighboring countries.
Political
problems
-Tribalism
in Africa attributed by different factors some of them include language
differences and colonial policy of divide and rule this contributed to
political animosity and civil wars. For example in Nigeria, Kenya, Rwanda,
Burundi, Ivory Coast and Uganda there are serious political divisions, civil
wars, displacement of people and death due to tribalism.
-Regionalism
in some African countries some parts of the regions have experienced faster
development than other areas hence disunity. For example in Sudan some parts of
southern experiences great poverty while northern parts is more developed,
following this there has been a very serious civil war that was that was fought
from the 1980s to 2011.
-Single
party system of ruling, most of African countries until 1990s were
characterized with single party rule following this many there was problem of
corruption, authoritarian and lack of democracy. However in 1990s many African
countries such as Kenya, Zambia and Mali struggled for multiparty government.
Political
instabilities caused by disputes over electoral outcomes, land resources and
sharing of government positions. This has hampered political unity to many
African countries and resulted to lack of economic progress, loss of life and
properties and displacement of people.
-Abortive
coup attempt and overthrow of governments due to several challenges within the
country including economy mismanagement, sectionalism, corruption, nepotism,
violation of human rights and tribalism for example in Nigeria the coups
against the prime minister Abubakar Tawafa Balewa while in Uganda Idd Amin
overthrew the government of Militon Obote in 1971.
-Neo-colonialism
resulted to ideological differences among the political leaders and political
disunity which hampered unity between African countries. For example in
Democratic Republic of Congo, several political readers were unhappy because Patrice
Lumumba the prime minister adopted socialism and in Kenya the president Jomo
Kenyatta adopted capitalism while his vice president supported socialism.
Economic
problems
-Poverty
is experienced in African countries due to the failure of governments to
allocate resources equitably and to provide development infrastructures such as
schools, roads, electricity as well as economic exploitation of certain regions
of the country.
-Mismanagement
of public resources for one’s benefits or for the benefits of one’s friends or
associates for personal gain or favors for example land have been grabbed by
corrupt government officials and civil servants thus undermining the economy.
This problem has been prevalent in Nigeria, Kenya and Burundi where a high
level of corruption has been reported for many years.
The Steps Taken to Solve Problems Hindering Development in
Africa after Independence
Examine
critically the steps taken to solve problems hindering development in Africa
after independence
-Introduction
of multiparty, most African countries decided to introduce more than one
political party so as to provide an opportunity for citizens to compete in the
political arena since this contribute in making the government more accountable
as the oppositions operate as a watchdog.
-Constitution
revision most African countries have been revised their constitution to limit
the term of the leaders to a maximum period usually two terms. Also political
candidates are now required to show proof of a good educational background in
order to eliminate possibility of having inept leaders.
-Strengthening
of democracy through African Union by allowing innervations in case of evidence
of violence and abuse of human rights in member countries, this prevents
political instabilities in countries and pre-empts refugee problems in the
continents. Affirmative action has been accepted in order to uplift women I
leadership. For example Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda have made great progress in
this sphere.
-Establishment
of regional organizations contributing to the stability of African states by
improving social and economic welfare of the citizens and expanding commerce,
transport and communications infrastructures.
-Introduction
of modern information systems such as internet and cell phones helped in boosting
economies of Africa by cutting down on unnecessary labour and by ensuring
watertight security of money and goods in both government offices and private
companies. Use of cell phones also facilitates quicker and more financial
transactions.
-Partnership
with developed countries through privatization of public corporations for the
aim of promoting development especially in productive areas such as minerals
and oils prospecting
HIV/AIDS
campaigns in order to inform citizens on ways of protecting themselves and on
how to assist infected people
-Establishment
of social security fund aimed at protecting retirees and those retrenched from
work due to ill health from experiencing serious financial problems.
-Establishment
of revenue collecting bodies like Tanzania Revenue Authority, Uganda Revenue
Authority and Kenya Revenue Authority in order to strengthen economy and
avoiding economic dependency on foreign countries
Success and Failures of the Steps Taken to Solve Problems
Hindering Development in Africa
Analyse
the successes and failures of the steps taken to solve problems hindering
development in africa
Failure
of the measures taken to resolve African political independence problems
The influence of external powers in African politics example in
2011 the USA and NATO powers attacked the forces of Muammar Gaddafi in spite of
pressure from the African Union to allow more time for dialog among the rebels
and government forces.
· -
Corruption
· -
Diseases
·
-refugees
Successes
of the measures taken to solve problems hindering development in Africa
-Multi
party system has promoted democracy and government accountabilities as well as
helped to reduce abuse of powers and corruption among African political leaders
within the continent.
-Respect
and adhering constitutional requirements especially in political issues like
elections
-Promotion
of gender mainstreaming programs in order to allow women and girls to advance
politically, economically and socially since now day women are no longer
sidelined in political activities in Africa. For example Liberia is led by
President Ellen Johnson-Sir leaf, a lady while Tanzania’s speaker of the
parliament is also a woman honorable Anne Makinda.
-Regional
economic organizations contributing to political achievements in African
countries through ECOWAS, SADC and EAC for example, African Union has played an
important role in enhancing political stability by condemning electoral
irregularities and condemning military takeovers in the continent as well as
has participated in peace keeping operation in Darfur and Somalia since 2009.
-Improvement
of social arena through saving retirees and those retrenched from work due to
ill health from experiencing serious financial problems. For example in Kenya
the National Social Security Fund (NSSF) and the National Hospital Insurance
Fund (NHIF) have both played a key role in uplifting the life the poorer
members of the society. Similar program have also been instituted in Uganda and
Tanzania.
-Improvement
of education system through adoption of different educational policy like
Universal Primary Education (UPE), Education for All (EFA), Primary and
Secondary development programs (SEDP & PEDP) all of these aim to fight
illiteracy in the society.
-Enhancement
of economic stabilities and reducing dependency on foreign donor through
establishment of revenue collection bodies; For example Tanzania Revenue
Authority, Uganda Revenue Authority and Kenya Revenue Authority.
-African
states stability through setting up of regional organizations for example
Uganda is the most important trading partner of Kenya.
Activity
to do
1. Explain
five common political features of the post independent African countries.
2. Give
five reasons why African countries decided to adopt new economic strategies
after independence.
3. State
the objectives of education in Africa after independence.
4. What
are the measures adopted to improve education sector by independent African
countries
5. Mention
five challenges experienced by African government
6. Why
African government wanted to change the colonial system of education?
7. What
are the objectives of health sector in post independent African countries?
8. Give
three challenges experienced by the independent African countries in the
provision of health services.
9. State
three weaknesses and strengths of the health services in Africa after
independence
10. Explain
five improvements in water provision in Africa since independence
11. What
are the measures adopted by African countries to improve the housing situation
of their people since independence?
12. State
two objectives behind the establishment of the armed forces and police force
after independence
13. Give
four functions of the military and police force.
