GEOGRAPHY FORM ONE
CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHY
Meaning of Geography Phenomena
The Meaning of the Term Geography
Define the
term geography
The
term Geography is a combination of two Greek words: Geo and Graphein. Geo means
Earth and Graphein means to write, draw or describe. These two words together
form Geographia, which means to draw, write about or describe the Earth. These
meanings led to the development of the early definition of geography which
referred to description of the Earth by words, maps and statistics and included
both the physical earth and everything found on it such as plants, animals and
people. Therefore, Geography is the study of the distribution and
interrelationship of phenomena in relation to the Earth surface. Alternatively,Geography
can be described as the study of the Earth and its environment.
BRANCHES
OF GEOGRAPHY
There are two branches of Geography, namely:
1. Physical
Geography - mainly concerned with land formation processes, weather and
climate.
2. Human
and Economic Geography - involves the study of human activities on the Earth's
surface
Explain the inter-relationship between different geographical
phenomena
Physical
and human environments make up the two major geographical phenomena. The word
phenomena refers to facts or circumstances observed, or observable within
nature. Therefore, a geographical phenomenon is an occurrence or fact in the
geographical science. There exists an interrelationship between Geography and
other subjects; physical and human environments lead to geographical phenomenon
within the two types of environment. There are a variety of other geographical
phenomena that are interrelated, for example land resources provide soil that
support plants growth. Sun rays generate heat which lead to the evaporation of
water; water vapour forms clouds and eventually rain is formed. Climate
determines the types of plant and animal species that can survive in a
particular geographical area and influences human population distribution. On
the other hand, human activities can lead to modification of physical
environments, for example soil degradation, land reclamation and forest
conservation.
Components of the Solar System
Name the
Components of the Solar System
Below are the components that make up the solar system:
1. The Sun
2. Planets
3. Comets
4. Asteroids
5. Meteors;
and
6. Satellites
Importance of the Components of Solar System
Describe
the importance of the components of solar system
Components of the Solar System are important because:
1. They
produce heat and light potential for living organisms, for example the Sun
2. The
provide habitat for humans and other living organisms, for example the Earth
3. They
form craters which later become attractive sites for tourism activities, for
example meteors which produce meteorites that fall on the Earth's surface and
form craters
The Sun
The Sun
is a star.
Dimension of the Sun in Relation to Other Space Bodies
State the
dimension of the sun in relation to other space bodies
Dimension
of the Sun relative to other Space Bodies: The diameter of the sun is 1.4
million kilometers
Characteristics of the Sun
Describe
the characteristics of the sun
The Sun
is composed of approximately 75% Hydrogen, 23% Helium and 3% other elements.
Therefore, the elements which make up the Earth comprise only a small fraction
of the materials which form the Sun. These include Carbon, Iron, Oxygen,
Silicon etc. The Sun is the only source of light and heat that the planet
receives. The temperature of the Sun is estimated to be 20,000,000 degrees
Centigrade.
Solar Energy
The Term Solar Energy
Define the
term solar energy
Solar
energy is the heat and light produced from the Sun. The Sun is the source of
all energy on the Earth.
Different Uses of Solar Energy
Suggest
different uses of solar energy
Some of the different uses of Solar energy include:
1. Drying
clothes, meat, fish, fruits and grains
2. Photosynthesis
ingrowing plants to manufacture their own food
3. Generation
of electricity
4. Formation
of coal, gas and oil
5. Formation
of clouds and rainfall through evaporation of water caused by the heat of the
Sun
6. Giving
power to small radios and running small telephone systems by using silicon
solar batteries
7. Source
of Vitamin D to human bodies as the bodies absorb Sunlight
8. For
domestic purposes like cooking food, heating, water.
How the Use of Solar Energy Promotes Environmental Conservation
Explain
how the use of solar energy promotes environmental conservation
Utilization
of Solar energy in manufacturing industries reduces the production of chlorine
from industrially produced chlorofluorocarbon gases which cause depletion of
the ozone layer. The depletion of the ozone layer causes global warming. Solar
energy is used as an alternative source of energy, therefore reducing the
depletion of forests for charcoal and firewood.
How Solar Energy May Contribute to Emancipation of Women
Explain
how solar energy may contribute to emancipation of women
REDUCED
TIME BURDENS LEADING TO HIGHER-EARNING JOBS AND INCREASED ENTREPRENEURIAL
OPPORTUNITIES
Women
are often disproportionately responsible for household duties. This is
particularly acute in rural settings, where women spend considerable time on
tasks such as collecting firewood for basic cooking, heating, and lighting
needs. Access to energy allows for more efficient products—from those as basic
as a solar lantern to those as advanced as a washing machine. These products
can reduce the time burdens of domestic responsibilities and create time for
more productive, formal engagement in the local economy outside the home.
Empirical studies that have examined the impact of electrification on female
labor rates in developing country settings reinforce this hypothesis.
IMPROVED
BASELINE CONDITIONS LEADING TO GREATER ACCESS TO ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES
There
are a multitude of studies that demonstrate that improved access to electricity
improves baseline living conditions for women. These studies show improvements
to women’s health through cleaner indoor air; better nutrition and food safety
due to improved refrigeration; and improved health knowledge through better
access to mass media and more time to read.Interior and exterior lighting in
rural settings often means improved security for women, enabling greater
mobility to engage in productive activities under safe conditions. Anecdotal
evidence also shows improved education for girls as a result of access to
electricity, although most empirical studies do not show gender-differentiated
impacts.Improving these baseline conditions facilitates the ease by which women
can participate in the local economy: Healthy, safe, and informed individuals
are more apt to be productive.
The Planets
Planets in the Solar System
Locate the
planets in the solar system
Planets
are bodies that revolve around the Sun. Previously, they included Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. Pluto does not
qualify to be a planet anymore as it is the smallest and does not revolve
around the Sun. Therefore, there are currently officially only eight planets in
our Solar System. The word 'Planet' originates from the Greek word 'Planetai'
which means 'Wandering' as the planets seem to move about in the Sky as
wandering stars. All planets revolve around the Sun in the same direction in
orbits that are elliptical and nearly in the same plane. The time taken to
complete an orbit depends on the distance from the Sun.
Relative Distance of Planets from the Earth
Show
relative distance of planets from the earth
How far
is each planet from Earth?
sually
when people ask this question, what they mean is "What is the distance
between the orbit of Earth and the orbit of each planet?" or "What is
the closest that each planet comes to Earth?" (These are essentially the
same question, because the planets can't get any closer than their orbital spacing
allows.) You can compute this in a rough way by assuming that the orbits are
circular and coplanar, and looking at the planet-to-Sun distance for each
planet. Since the distances are so large, we usually express them in
Astronomical Units (AU). (AnAUis the average distance from Earth to the Sun,
about 150 million kilometers or 93 million miles.) The table below lists the
distance of each planet from the Sun in AU.
Planet |
Average distance from Sun in AU |
Mercury |
0.39 |
Venus |
0.72 |
Earth |
1.00 |
Mars |
1.52 |
Jupiter |
5.20 |
Saturn |
9.58 |
Uranus |
19.20 |
Neptune |
30.05 |
Pluto (dwarf planet) |
39.48 |
Other bodies in the
Solar System
Characteristics of Comets, Asteroids, Meteors and Satellites
Describe
the characteristics of comets, asteroids, meteors and satellites
Comets are
objects with leading heads and bright tails in the Sky. Sometimes they can be
seen at night. They are composed of ice crystals and fragments of solid matter.
They have highly elongated orbits around the Sun. They can be seen from the
Earth only when they come close to the Sun.
Asteroids are
solid heavenly bodies revolving around the Sun. They are mostly found between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. They are in thousands and the largest has
adiameter of just less than 800 Kilometres. The bodies can only be seen with a
telescope because they are very far away.
Meteors are
pieces of hard matter falling from outer Space. They can be seen when they come
close to the earth, at about 110-145 Kilometres, whereas as a result of
friction with the atmosphere, they become hot and usually disintegrated. They
fall on the Earth's surface as large boulders known as meteorites, or a meteor
if it is one. These bodies are made of Nickel, Iron and Silica.
Satellites are the
moons of the Planets and they can be defined as the small bodies which rotate
on their axis and revolve around the Sun. There are only seven (7) planets
which have satellites apart from 57 satellites in the Solar System. The number
of satellites depends on the size and nature of the planet.
Local Incidents Linked to Meteorites
Narrate
local incidents linked to meteorites
There
are two known meteorites in Tanzania. One is found in Mbozi district in Mbeya
region and the other is inMalampaka in the Kwimba district in Mwanza region.
These falling meteorites have resulted in the formation of craters.
The Earth
The
Earth is the only Planet among the planets in the Solar System that is known to
support life. (Pluto does not qualify as a planet any moreasit is the smallest
and does not revolve around the sun). The Earth is made up of the atmosphere
(air), hydrosphere (water bodies), the solid crust, molten materials and the
biosphere (living organism). Water bodies cover about three quarters of the
Earth's surface.
The Shape of the Earth and its Evidence
Describe
the shape of the earth and its evidence
There are many ways to prove that the earth is spherical. The
following are some of them:
1. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE EARTH: The first voyage around
the world by Ferdinand Magellan and his crew, from 1519 to 1522, proved beyond
doubt that the earth is spherical. No traveller going round the world by land
or sea has ever encountered an abrupt edge, over which he would fall. Modern
air routes and ocean navigation are based on the assumption that the earth is
round.
2. THE CIRCULAR HORIZON: The
distant horizon viewed from the deck of a ship at sea, or from a cliff on land
is always and everywhere circular in shape. This circular horizon widens with
increasing altitude and could only be seen on a spherical body.
3. SHIP'S VISIBILITY: When a
ship appears over the distant horizon, the top of the mast is seen first before
the hull. In the same way, when it leaves habour, its disappearance over the
curved surface is equally gradual. If the earth were flat, the entire ship
would be seen or obscured all at once.
4. SUNRISE AND SUNSET: The sun
rises and sets at different times in different places. As the earth rotates
from west to east, places in the east see the sun earlier than those in the
west. If the earth were flat, the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at
the same time. But we know this is not so.
5. THE LUNAR ECLIPSE: The
shadow cast by the earth on the moon during a lunar eclipse is always circular.
It takes the outline of an arc of a circle. Only a sphere can cast such a
circular shadow.
6. PLANETARY BODIES ARE SPHERICAL: All observations from telescopes reveal that the planetary
bodies, the sun, moon, satellites and stars have circular outlines from
whichever angle you see them. They are strictly spheres. Earth, by analogy,
cannot be the only exception.
7. DRIVING POLES ON LEVEL GROUND ON A CURVED EARTH: Engineers when driving poles of equal length at regular
intervals on the ground have found they do not give a perfect horizontal level.
The centre pole normally projects slightly above the poles at either end
because of the curvature of the earth. Surveyors and field engineers therefore
have to make certain corrections for this inevitable curvature, i.e. 12.6 cm to
1 km.
8. SPACE PHOTOGRAPHS: Pictures
taken from high altitudes by rockets and satellites show clearly the curved
edge of the earth. This is perhaps the most convincing and the most up-to-date
proof of the earth's sphericity.
Earth's Movements
Types of Earth's Movements
Describe
the types of earth's movements
The Earth is in motion all the time. People cannot feel this
motion because they move with it like all other planets. There are two types of
movements of the earth, namely:
1. The rotation
of the Earth on its own axis
2. The
revolution of the Earth around the Sun
The Term Rotation
Describe
the term rotation
Rotation
refers to thespinning of a body on its axis. The earth rotates or spins on its
axis in an anti-clockwise direction, from West to East through 3600 in 24
hours. Thus for every 15 degrees of rotation, the earth takes one hour which is
the same as four minutes for every 1 degree.
An axis
is an imaginary line joining the N (North) and S (South) poles through the
center of the Earth.
Note: The
rotation of the earth is very rapid although it is difficult to feel itsmotion.
At the equator, every point of the earth's surface is traveling Eastwards at
about 1600 Km per hour. At latitude 40 degrees, the speed is about 1280 Km per
hr.
Evidence to Prove that the Earth Rotates
Give
evidence to prove that the earth rotates
Below is evidence that proves that the Earth rotates:
1. During
the night, stars appear to move across the sky from West to East
2. If one
travels in a fast moving vehicle, will notice trees and other objects on both
sides of the road are moving fast in the opposite direction
3. Rising
of the sun over the eastern horizon in the morning. This shows that the point
of observation, that is south, is moving by rotation from West to East
4. Day and
Night. During the Earth's rotations some regions face the sun while others do
not face it. Thise regions facing the sun experience day time whereas the
regions which are not facing the sun are in darkness (night). This proves that
the earth is rotating.
Significances of Earth's Rotation
Explain
the significances of earth's rotation
Alternation of day and night: Rotation of the earth causes the
sides of the earth which face the sun to experience daylight which is the day,
whereas the side that is not facing the sun at that time will be in darkness
(night).
1. The
occurrence of tides in the ocean caused by gravitational forces of the moon and
sun upon the rotation of the Earth
2. Deflection
of winds and ocean current
3. Time
difference between longitudes: The rotation is responsible for difference in
time between different places on Earth. It causes the difference of one hour in
every 15 degree interval between longitudes. The Earth rotates from West to
East and takes 24 hours to complete one rotation. The difference in time is 4
minutes for each degree of longitude
The Term Revolution
Define the
term revolution
Revolution
is defined as the movement of one body around another. The earth revolves
around the sun in an elliptical orbit. Due to the elliptical shape of the earth
orbit the sun is closer to the earth at one point of the year than at another.
The
farthest (maximum distance) position from the sun in orbit of the earth is
called aphelion while the nearest position of the earth to the Sun is known as
perihelion.
The Process of Revolution
Explain
the process of revolution
The
Earth is at aphelion each year on 4th July, when it is at the maximum distance
of 152 million kilometer form the sun. The earth is at perihelion each year on
3rd January when it is at the minimum distance of 147 million kilometers.
The
earth's revolution around the sun takes a year (365¼ days) therefore the speed
of revolution is about 29.6 kilometers per second. A normal year has only 365
days. The remaining fraction of ¼ day is added once in four years to make a
leap year of 366 days.
The Result of the Earth's Revolution Around the Sun
Describe
the result of the earth's revolution around the sun
The result of the Earth's Revolution around the Sun:
1. The
four seasons of the year; summer, autumn, winter and spring. A season is one of
the distinct period into which the year may be divided. In the northern
hemisphere the summer season months are May, June and July. Autumn months are
August, September and October, winter months are November, December and January
and spring months are February, March and April. In the southern hemisphere
summer season months are November, December and January. Autumn months are
February, March and April. Winter months are May, June and July and spring
months are August, September and October. Equinox refers to the period when the
sun is overhead at the equator.
2. Change
in the position of the midday sun at different times of the year. As the earth
revolves around the sun its position changes and makes it appear as if it is
the sun moving.
3. Varying
lengths of the day and night at different times of the year. The axis of the
earth is inclined to its elliptical plane at a certain angle of 66.5 degrees.
If the axis of the earth were vertical, the sun rays would be overhead at the
Equator, thus all places on the earth would always experience 12 hours of
daylight and 12 hours of night
The Importance of the
Parallels and Meridians
The Parallels and Meridians
Define the
parallels and meridians
Latitude
refers to the angular distance North or South of the equator measured in
degrees, minutes and seconds. The equator is given a value of 00. It is an
imaginary line which divides the Earth into two hemispheres. The Northern
hemisphere has a latitude of 90o N and
the Southern hemisphere has a latitude of 90o S.
Therefore,
Parallels of latitude are particular lines joining all points on the surface of
the earth and making an angle of 300o N with the equatorial plane.
How Latitudes and Longitudes are Determined
Describe
how latitudes and longitudes are determined
THE
IMPORTANT PARALLELS
The important parallels include:
1. Equator
0o
2. Tropic
of Cancer 23.5oN
3. Tropic
of Capricorn 23.5oS
4. Arctic
Circles 66.5oN
5. The
Atlantic Circle 66.5oS
LONGITUDE
Refers
to the angular distance measured in degrees East and West of the Greenwich
Meridian.
Prime
Meridian is the line running through the poles and the Greenwich observatory
near London. It is also known as Greenwich Meridian.
All
lines of longitude are semi circles of equal length. Lines of longitude are
also called meridians. There are 360o in a circle, 180o lie
east of the Greenwich Meridian and the other 180o west of Greenwich.
The
Greenwich lines have been chosen by convention (meaning that any other lines
could have served the same purpose).
CALCULATION
OF TIME
The
earth rotates on its own axis from West to East once every twenty four hours. This
means 360oof longitude are covered in a period of 24 hours or 1o in four minutes. There are places on a given meridian that
experience midday at the same time. Time recorded along the same meridian is
known as Local Mean Time (LMT).
Example 1
When the local time of Accra is 2.00pm what will be the local
time of Bangui 15 degrees E.
Solution
15
degrees - 0 degrees = 15 degrees
15 x 4
minutes = 60
60/60 =
1 hour
Accra
2.00 pm + 1.OO hour time difference = 3.00 pm
Importance of a Great Circle
Explain
the importance of a great circle
Any
circle which divides the globe into hemispheres is a great circle. The equator
is a great circle and Greenwich Meridian together with Meridian 1800 make
another great circle. The number of great circles is limit less.
The importance
of great circles in geological applications of spherical projections is that
they can represent planes. The center of a great circle is called its pole. If
you know a great circle, you can find its pole, and if you know the pole, you
can find the great circle. Thus it is possible to represent a plane by a single
point. This fact is extensively used in advanced projection techniques. The
perimeter of equatorial plane is called primitive circle.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF GREAT CIRCLES
1. All
great circles divide the earth (sphere) into two hemispheres.
2. A great
circle is the largest possible circle that can be drawn on the surface of the
sphere.
3. The
radius of great circles is the same as the radius of the earth.
USES OF GREAT CIRCLES
Great
circles are used to plot routes for ships crossing the vast oceans and aircraft
flying great distance in space. Ships and aircraft travel by following great
circles in order to save fuel and time because the shortest route between two
places is along the circle of the great circle which passes through them.
Importance of Parallels and Meridians
Discuss
the importance of parallels and meridians
Parallels
are another name for lines of latitude. You will see that these lines do not
converge, or come together, anywhere on the globe. We call these parallels
because they are always an equal distance apart. The first parallel is the
equator. It is latitude 0. Latitude measures distance north and south from the
Equator. Parallels are lines that circle the globe.
Meridians
are another name for lines of longitude. These lines are drawn on maps and
globes so that people can locate places. Meridians are lines that run from the
North Pole to the South Pole. Meridians are not parallel. They converge or come
together at the Poles. They number from the Prime Meridian (line 0) to 180W and
from the Prime Meridian to 180E.
Local time
Calculate
local time
Example 2
What is the local time at Morogoro-Tanzania when it is noon at
Kigali-Rwanda?
Procedure
1. Note
the longitudinal position between the two points Kigali 30°E and Morogoro 45°E
2. Find
the difference in degrees of longitude between Kigali and Morogoro 45 degrees -
30 degrees = 15 degrees
3. Multiply
the difference by 4 minutes 15°x 4 minutes = 60 minutes; 60 ÷ 60 = 1 hour
4. The
time difference is to be added (+) in case of places to the East of a point. In
case of place to the West, the time difference is subtracted (-). Since
Morogoro is to the East of Kigali, Morogoro time will be ahead of that of Kigali's
by 1 hour, therefore time for Morogoro will be:12.00 noon + 1 hour = 1.00 pm.
Time and Time Zone
Define
time and time zone
Time
means duration or suitable moment for some purpose.
Time
zone refers to a zone where standard time is accepted throughout a longitudinal
zone 150 in width.
Essence of Time and Time Zone
Explain
the essence of time and time zone
The
importance of time zones is to avoid the problems in telling time if every
place had its own time set according to the local mean time.
The
timetable of various human activities such as television and radio programs
would be confusing if they had to show different times.
As the
time varies from place to place, different stretches of land agreed to adopt
the time from certain meridian, that time is known as standard time.
East
African countries agreed to adopt standard time taken from meridian of 45oE.When
a whole stretch of land keeps to the same standard time that stretch of land
forms a time zone.
Variation of Standard Time in a Single Country
Explain
variation of standard time in a single country
Large
countries like USA, China, etc have several standard time zones with each time
zone covering about 15 degrees of longitude. There are 24 times zones in the
world. The starting point for dividing the world into 24 times zones is the
Greenwich Meridian. The standard time for Greenwich is known as the Greenwich
Meridian time (GMT).
International Date Line
Define
International Date Line
The
International Date Line is the line where date is changed or calendar day
begins. This line follows approximately the 1800 meridian.
Location of International Date Line
Locate
International Date Line
When
the time is 6.00pm on Monday 25th December, at Greenwich, the time at 1800 E
longitude will be 12 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. The time at 1800 E
will be 6.00am on Tuesday 26th December. Therefore if one travels eastwards and
crosses the date line, one will gain a day whereas one who travels westwards
across the line will loose a day.
MAJOR FEATURES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE
Continents
Meaning of a Continent
Explain
the meaning of a continent
The
land surface occupies 29% of the surface of the globe, and the remaining 71% is
covered by water. The land surface forms seven continents. A continent is a
major landmass rising from the ocean floor. It includes islands adjacent to the
continent. There are seven continents namely, Africa, Asia, South America,
North America, Europe, Australia and Antarctica. These continents are
surrounded by the following oceans: The Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the
Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Southern ocean.
There is more land surface in the northern hemisphere than in
the southern hemisphere but there is more water surface in the southern
hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere. The continents are broader in the
northern hemisphere. The seven continents that make up the globe are explained
below:
1. Australia: Australia
is the smallest continent and it is about a quarter of the size of Africa. Its
size is about 8.5 million square kilometres. Australia is approximately 10°S
and 40°S and between 115°E and 150°E. The islands of New Zealand to the south
east of Australia are part of this continent. The continent is bordered to the
west and north by the Indian Ocean, to the east by the Pacific Ocean, and to
the south by the Southern Ocean.
2. Europe: Europe
is the sixth continent in size and it is about two-fifth the size of Africa.
The size of Europe is 9.8 million square kilometres. Most of Europe lies
between 40°N and the 1 Arctic circle, and between 10°W and 60°E. It lies to the
west of Asia, separated by the Ural Mountains. Europe is bordered to the north
by the Arctic Ocean, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south by the
Mediterranean Sea.
3. Antarctica: Antarctica
is the fifth continent in size and it is about one-third the size of Africa.
Its area is about 11.4 million square kilometres. This is the southernmost
continent, forming a circle at the South Pole and extends south of 661⁄2°S. It
is surrounded by the southern ocean. The continent is mostly uninhabited.
4. North America: North
America is the fourth continent in size and it is slightly more than half the
size of Africa. Its size is about 17.9 million square kilometres. If extends
from 10°N to 65°N and from 60°W to 160°W. It is bordered to the west by the
Pacific Ocean, to the East by the Atlantic Ocean, and the North by the Arctic
Ocean.
5. South America: South
America is the third largest continent and it is about two-thirds the size of
Africa. Its size is about 24.3 million square kilometres. It lies between 10°N
and 50°S and between 35°W and 80°W. This continent is bordered to the east by
the Atlantic Ocean, to the West by the Pacific Ocean, and it is joined to North
America by the Isthmus of Panama.
6. Africa: Africa
is the second largest continent with an area of about 3.6 square kilometres.
Africa extends from 37°N to 35°S and from 50°W to 50°E and it is crossed by
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Thus the greater part, about three quarters of
the whole area lies in the tropics. Africa is bordered to the north by the
Mediterranean Sea, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the East by the
Indian Ocean.
7. Asia: Asia is
the largest of all continents. It covers more than one third of the land
surface of the earth. It is approximately one and a half times the size of
Africa. Its total area is about 45.6 million square kilometres. Asia stretches
from 0° to 67°N and from 30°E to about 18°E. The Ural Mountains form the
boundary between Asia and Europe. This continent is attached to Africa by the
narrow Isthmus of Suez which has been dug to form the Suez Canal. The continent
is bordered to the North by the Arctic Ocean, to the East by the Pacific Ocean,
and to the South by the Indian Ocean.
The
following table summarizes the location and area of all seven continents
discussed above:
Continent |
Geographical
location |
Area
(Million Km2) |
Asia |
0° - 67° N; 30° -
180° E |
45.6 |
Africa |
37° N - 55° S; 15° W
- 50° E |
30.6 |
South America |
10° N - 50° S; 35° W
- 80° W |
24.3 |
North America |
10° N - 65° N; 60° W
- 160° W |
17.9 |
Antarctica |
Between the South
Pole and 66½ °S |
11.4 |
Europe |
40° N and the Arctic
Circle ; 10° W - 60° E |
9.8 |
Australia |
10° S - 40° S; 115°
E - 150° E |
8.5 |
Major Features of the Continent
Identify
the major features of the continent
The
surface of the continents is not smooth. It has mountains, hills, rivers and
valleys, plateaus, and plains. Mountains are landforms which have high relief
generally over 300 metres above the surrounding area. Hills are landforms that have
moderate relief generally between 150 and 300 metres above the surrounding
area. Plateaus are extensivehighland areas with more or less uniform summit
level, bounded by one or more slopes falling steeply away, sometimes rising on
one or more sides by steep slopes to mountain ridges. Plains are continuous
sketches of comparatively flat land not much above sea level, sometimes gently
rolling or undulating.
Mountains
There are four types of mountains. These are the Fold Mountains,
Block Mountains, Residual Mountains, and Volcanic Mountains. These mountains
are all named according to the way they were formed.
·
Fold Mountains:Fold
Mountains are formed by wrinkling or (folding) of the Earth’s crust. Fold
Mountains usually form parallel ranges which extend for hundreds of miles
across a continent. Thus, Fold Mountains are the most extensive ranges in the
world. For example, the Rocky Mountains in North America vary in width from 640
to 1,600 kilometres and are about 5,000 kilometres in length. These types of
mountains have some of the highest peaks in the world. Mount Everest in the
Himalayas is 8,848 metres above sea level and the Aconcagua in the Andes is
7,003 metres above sea level. Examples of Fold Mountains include the Himalayas
in Asia; the Rockies in North America; the Andes in South America; the Alps in
Europe; the Atlas in North Africa; the Cape ranges in South Africa; the Appalachians
in the USA; and the Great Dividing Ranges in Australia.
·
Block Mountains:Block
Mountains are formed when a movement in the earth’s crust forces the rocks to
break instead of folding. As a result enormous cracks or faults are formed.
When two sets of faults run parallel to each other and the ground between is
forced to rise up, a block (fault) mountain is formed. Usually Block Mountains
do not extend over wide areas as Fold Mountains do. Examples of Block Mountains
are the Usambara, Uluguru and Ruwenzori Mountains in Africa; the Vosges and
Black Forest Mountains in Europe; and Mount Sinai in Asia.
·
Residual Mountains:Residual
mountains are formed when an area of highland remains standing above the
general level of land after the rivers and other natural agents have lowered
the surface of the surrounding area. Sometimes such highlands are called
mountains of denudation. These mountains may in some cases appear as isolated
hills but in other cases they appear as long ridges, generally steep on one side
(the scarp slope) and gentle on the other side (dip slope). Examples of
residual mountains are the Ahaggar Mountains of central Sahara; the Sekenke
hills of Singida in Tanzania; the Admawa mountains of eastern Nigeria; the
Highlands of Scotland; the Sierras of central Spain; and the Mesas and Buttes
of the western plateau of the United States.
·
Volcanic Mountains:Volcanic
mountains are formed from the piling up and cooling of hot molten lava and
ashes that are thrown out from the earth’s interior after a volcanic eruption.
Some of the volcanic mountains existing today were built up by a single
eruption, but others were built by several eruptions. Volcanic eruptions are
still taking place in some parts of the earth. Among the existing volcanic
mountains, some still experience periodic eruptions, for example, the Vesuvius
in Italy; the Krakatoa in Indonesia; the Mufimbiro in Uganda; and the
Oldoinyo-Lengai in Tanzania. The Volcanic Mountains that still experience
periodic eruptions are called active volcanic mountains.The Volcanic Mountains
which erupted once in historical times and are no longer active are said to be
dormant. In this group are included the Kilimanjaro and Meru mountains in
Tanzania. Those volcanic mountains which have never experienced eruption and
have shown no signs of erupting again are said to be extinct (dead). Included
in this group are mountains Kenya, Elgon, Ngorongoro and Rungwe in East Africa;
and Demavend in Iran.Volcanic mountains are usually conical in shape and mostly
contain craters or depressions at their summits, for example, mountains
Fujiyama and Kilimanjaro. Sometimes the craters are filled with water to form
crater lakes.
Plateaus
In
geology and earth science, a plateau (plural: plateaus or plateaux), also
called a high plain or tableland, is an area of highland, usually consisting of
relatively flat terrain that is raised significantly above the surrounding
area, often with one or more sides with steep slopes.
The
largest and highest plateau in the world is the Tibetan Plateau, called the
"roof of the world”. The Tibetan plateau covers approximately 2,500,000
km2 at about 5,000 m above sea level.
The
second-highest plateau is Deosai National Park (also known as Deoasai Plains)
at an average elevation of 4,114 m and is located in the Skardu District of
Gilgit-Baltistan, in northern Pakistan.
The
third-largest plateau is the Antarctic Plateau, which covers most of central
Antarctica, where there are no known mountains, but rather 3,000 m or more of
ice.
Other plateaus in the world include the Colorado Plateau (North
America); the Great Central Plateau, Ahagger Plateau and Fouta Djallon Plateau
(Africa); Brazilian Plateau (South America), Mexican Plateau and Laurentian
Plateau (North America); Arabian Plateau, Deccan Plateau and Tibet Plateau
(Asia).
Plains
A plain
is a broad area of relatively flat land. Plains are one of the major landforms,
or types of land, on Earth. They cover more than one-third of the world’s land
area. Plains exist on every continent except Antarctica. Plains occur as
lowlands and at the bottoms of valleys but also on plateaus or uplands at high
elevations.
Plains
in many areas are important for agriculture because where the soils were
deposited as sediments they may be deep and fertile, and the flatness facilitates
mechanization of crop production; or because they support grasslands which
provide good pasture for livestock.
Plains vary widely in size. The smallest occupy only a few
hectares, whereas the largest cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometres.
For example, the Great Plains of North America extends from Pyrenees Range on
the French–Spanish border across northern Europe and Asia, almost halfway
around the world.
The Yellow
River winds through the plains of Sichuan, China. Many rivers are surrounded by
plains, or broad areas of flat land.
Water Bodies
Meaning of a Water Body
Define a
water body
A water
body is any significant accumulation of water, generally on a planet's surface.
The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller
pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of
water does not have to be still or contained. Rivers, streams, canals, and
other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are
also considered water bodies.
Oceans and Other Water Bodies
Identify
the oceans and other water bodies
An ocean is defined as a body of saline water covering much of
the earth. The largest ocean is the Pacific. Its area is about 165.3 million
square kilometres. The second largest ocean is the Atlantic, which covers about
82.2 million square kilometres. The IndianOcean, covering about 73.4 square
kilometres is the third largest, followed by the Arctic Ocean, covering about
14.0 million square kilometres.
Composition
of ocean water
Ocean
water contains a number of dissolved mineral salts. These mineral salts include
sodium chloride (common salt) which makes up 78% of all salt in the ocean
water; and compounds of magnesium, potassium and calcium. Most of the minerals
in the ocean are a result of constant accumulation since the formation of the
oceans. However, a small amount of the minerals come from the land, having been
dissolved by water and brought into the ocean by rivers. But the mineral salts
in rivers are only in very small quantities.
The
saltiness of the ocean water is not the same everywhere. Saltiness of the ocean
water depends mainly on temperature which affects the amount of salt that can
dissolve in the water, the amount of fresh water brought into the ocean by
rivers and rainfall, and the amount of evaporation taking place from the
surface.
Water
temperature
Water
is heated by the sun’s rays much more slowly than land is. Water also loses
heat to the air around it more slowly than the land does. This causes the
temperature of the sea water to vary only slightly from season to season. In
general, the temperature of the ocean water decreases from the equator, where
the surface temperature is 25°C to the polar regions where the water is very
cold (-2.2°C). But the decrease in temperature poleward is not uniform because
of the occurrence of warm and cold ocean currents. Onthe other hand, water
temperature decreases with depth in the tropics up to the depth where the
temperature is 1.1°C.
Water
movements
Ocean
water is constantly in motion. There are two types of movement. One is
horizontal movement, which is in the form of ocean currents and tides, and the
other is vertical, which is the rising of subsurface water and the sinking of
the surface water. The movements of ocean water are a result of density
variations in the water which is particularly important in vertical movements
and winds which are particularly important in horizontal movements.
An ocean current is the permanent or seasonal movement of
surface water in the ocean. There are warm and cold currents, the ocean
currents are set in motion by a combination of prevailing winds, differences in
density and temperature of the ocean waters, the rotation of the earth, and the
shape of landmass.
Tides
are the rising and the falling in the level of water in the oceans, seas and
lakes. They occur twice a day (in 24 hours). The level to which tides rise and
fall varies from day to day. On the days when it rises to its highest level, it
also falls to its lowest level. The rising and falling is caused by the pull of
gravity of the moon and the sun.
Waves are to and from movements of the surface water. When water
is thrown into waves, its surface gets a shape of ups and downs. The highest
part of the wave is called the crest and the lowest the trough. The distance
from one crest to the next, or from trough to trough is called the wavelength.
Waves travel in some definite direction, andgive the impression that they move
forward, but in reality only the shape moves forward while the water moves up
and down. For example, a cork thrown into the water does not travel with the
waves, it moves up and down and to and fro, but not forwards. A wave is driven
on the shore by wind, and its height and force are determined by the strength
of the wind and the distance of open water over which it has blown.
Water
waves
Lakes
A lake
is a natural or man-made body of water that is surrounded by land. Lakes lie on
land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons,
and are also larger and deeper than ponds, though there are no official or
scientific definitions. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams.
Some
lakes are artificial (man-made lakes) and are constructed for industrial or
agricultural use, for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply,
or for aesthetic or recreational purposes. Examples of man-made lakes include
Lake Nasser (in Egypt), Lake Kariba (Zambia), and Lake Volta (Ghana).
The
majority of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the Northern
Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Most lakes have at least one natural outflow in
the form of a river or stream, which maintains a lake's average level by
allowing the drainage of excess water. However, some lakes do not have a
natural outflow and lose water solely by evaporation or underground seepage or
both.
Lakes
are not evenly distributed on the earth's surface; most are located in high
latitudes and mountainous regions. Although lakes are usually thought to be
freshwater bodies, many lakes, especially in arid regions, become quite salty
because a high rate of evaporation concentrates inflowing salts. The Caspian
Sea, Dead Sea, and Great Salt Lake are among the greatest of the world's salty
lakes. The Great Lakes of the United States and Canada is the world's largest
system of freshwater lakes. Lake Superior alone is the world's largest
freshwater lake with an area of 82,414 sq km. The Caspian Sea is the largest
lake in the world, with an area of 372,960 sq km. Lake Titicaca in the
AndesMountains of South America is the world’s highest lake at 3,800 m above
sea level; while the Dead Sea is the lowest at 425 m below sea level.
Rivers
A river
is natural water flowing in a definite channel towards an ocean, sea, lake,
desert basin, marsh or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the
ground and become dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of
water. Small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek,
brook, rivulet, and rill.
Rivers
are part of the hydrological cycle. Water generally collects in a river from
precipitation through a drainage basin from surface runoff and other sources
such as groundwater, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice
and snowpacks (e.g. from glaciers).
Examples
of rivers in Africa include the Nile, Congo, Niger, Zambezi and Orange. In
Tanzania we have rivers like Rufiji, Ruvuma, Ruaha, Pangani, Wami and
Malagalasi.
Features of the Ocean Floor
Describe
the features of the ocean floor
The floor of the ocean is irregular. The major relief features
of the ocean floor are explained below:
1. Continental shelf:This is a gentle-slope
margin of a continent that forms the shallow areas of oceans. These shallow
areas extend from the coast to a depth of about 200 metres towards the ocean,
and usually end suddenly.
2. Continental slope:The continental slope is
found at the point where the continental shelf forms a steep slope with the
lower slope of the ocean floor towards the sea.
3. Ridge:A ridge is the raised part of the ocean floor.
Some of these rides appear above the surface of the oceans as oceanic islands.
4. Ocean deep or trench:An ocean deep is a long,
narrow depression (or trough) found on the ocean floor.
5. Deep sea plain (ocean plain):An
ocean plain is the most extensive, flat area of the ocean floor. It is a
monotonous and undulating area. A large part of the plain is covered by mud.
A
generalized section across an ocean floor
The Map Showing the Distribution of Continents and Water Bodies
Draw the
map to show the distribution of continents and water bodies
The Map showing distribution of water bodies.
WEATHER
Concept of Weather
Meaning of Weather
Define
weather
Weather
is defined as conditions of the atmosphere which occur at a place at specific
time periods, that is, from hour to hour or day to day. It changes from time to
time and from place to place. For example, it may be raining in the morning and
sunny in the afternoon.
Weather
may also be defined as the day-to-day state of the atmosphere, and its
short-term variation in minutes to several weeks.
How do
you feel when seated in a classroom on a cloudy day? You probably feel cold.
Don’t you? Now, suppose you move outside the classroom on a sunny day and stay
there for several minutes. Your body will obviously feel hot and may even start
to sweat. What does this experience tell you about the weather?
The
weather is all around us, all the time. It is an important part of our lives
and one that we cannot control. Instead the weather often controls how and
where we live, what we do, what we wear and what we eat.
The
scientific study of weather is called meteorology and a person who studies
weather is called meteorologist.
Importance of Weather
Describe
the importance of weather
Weather is an important part of the natural environment. It
directly or indirectly affects many of our activities. The following are some
of the reasons why weather is important to mankind and the surrounding
environment:
1. Weather
is one of the fundamental processes that shape the Earth. The process of
weathering breaks down the rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into
their constituent substances. In this way, weather plays a major role in
erosion of the surface soil, hence shaping the earth.
2. The
weather of any given region is important because it has a considerable impact
on the water, sunlight and temperature of an ecosystem. Variation in long-term
weather patterns and tendencies can result in certain regions getting more or
less water or sunlight than other areas. These factors play an important role
by influencing the type of plants and animals that can survive in the area.
3. Certain
weather patterns can also cause dangerous storms and natural disasters. We tend
to be acutely aware of the weather when we are faced with exceptional or
dangerous phenomena that could endanger our property, safety or even lives.
Such phenomena are, for example, strong winds, hail, heavy rainfall, sleet, ice
and frost.
4. Studying
weather characteristics of a given place over along period of time (usually 30
to 40 years) enables the climatic conditions of that place to be established.
Therefore, weather can be used as a basis for determining the climate of a
given place.
5. The
knowledge of weather (and hence climate) enables people to carry out their
economic activities depending on the weather and climatic conditions of their
localities. For example, people living in cold areas which receive high
rainfall can engage in dairy farming and the growing crops such as tea, coffee,
banana, etc.
The Relationship between Weather and Human Occupations
Show the
relationship between weather and humans occupations
There
is a direct relationship between the weather condition and nature of human
activity. Due to the fact that deserts experience very hot weather, it will be
surprising to see tea or banana tree growing there. This way we can see a clear
connection between the two. E.g, during rainfall, construction companies
experience lows in business and meanwhile floods hinder transport on rivers.
Elements of Weather
Elements of Weather
Name
elements of weather
Weather
elements refer to a combination of natural phenomena that make up the weather.
There are several elements that make the weather and climate of a place. The
weather elements are temperature, pressure, precipitation, wind, humidity,
clouds and sunshine.
The
study of these elements can provide the basis for forecasting weather and
defining the climate. Now, let us study each element in more details:
Temperature
The temperature is how hot or cold the atmosphere is, usually
measured by a thermometer and expressed in degrees on a Centigrade or Fahrenheit
scale. There are several types of thermometers. The maximum thermometer shows
the highest temperature reached during a given period, for example a day; while
the minimum thermometer shows the lowest temperature recorded (the figure below
shows maximum and minimum thermometers).
Maximum
and minimum thermometers
The
maximum thermometer is made of glass and contains mercury in the bulb.
Theminimum thermometer is also made of glass but contains alcohol instead of
mercury. The thermometer is marked in degrees of Centigrade or Fahrenheit. When
the temperature rises, the mercury expands and extends along a glass tube.
Changes in temperature are shown by the length of mercury. For example, if the
lowest temperature reads 12.5°C and the maximum temperature reads 24.0 °C, then
the changes in temperature is calculated as 24.0 – 12.5 = 11.5°C.
The Six’s thermometer can also be used for measuring maximum and
minimum temperature. The thermometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube. The
metal index nearest to the bulb indicates the minimum temperature and the other
metal index records the maximum temperature.
Six’s
Thermometer. Can you read the max temperature and min temperature?
Temperature
is a very important factor in determining weather. It influences or controls other
elements of weather, such as precipitation, humidity, clouds and sunshine. The
factors affecting (modifying) temperature include latitude, altitude, distance
to the ocean and/or sea, orientation of mountain ranges toward prevailing winds
(aspect) and ocean currents.
Reading and recording temperature
The maximum and minimum temperatures which are recorded for the
day are used to calculate:
a. daily
range of temperature, which is the difference between the maximum and minimum
temperatures; and
b. the
daily mean, which is the average of maximum and minimum temperatures.
Maximum
+ Minimum/2 = Daily mean
The
monthly range of temperature is the difference between the highest daily mean
temperature and the lowest daily mean temperature. To get the lowest mean temperature
for a particular month, add up the mean daily temperatures and divide by the
number of days in that month. For example, the mean monthly temperature for
January is given by:
M1 +M2 +M3 + ...... Mn/32 where M1, M2, M3…….Mn are the mean daily temperatures
for days 1, 2, 3……n; and 31 is the number of days in January. The same formula
can be applied to obtain the maximum daily mean temperature for a particular
month.
The
annual range of temperature in a particular year is the difference between the highest
mean monthly temperature and the lowest mean monthly temperature.
When reading and recording of data is done over a period of
time, the obtained data can be shown on maps. These maps are called temperature
maps. When comparing the temperature in different parts of the world, it is
usual to make use of temperature maps. Different places with the same
temperature conditions can be joined on the map by lines called isotherms.
Isotherms
Relationship between temperature and altitude
Temperature
decreases at the rate of 0.6°C for every 100 metres increase in altitude.
Therefore, temperatures in highland areas are lower than temperatures in
lowlands.
Apart from isotherms, another way of presenting the temperature
data is using a graph. In this case, temperature figures are plotted on the
graph and points are joined by a smooth line.
Average
monthly temperature for Station X
Precipitation
This
refers to the deposition of moisture on the earth’s surface from the
atmosphere. This moisture includes rain, snow, ice, hail, mist and sleet.
Demonstrating the formation of rain
Boil
some water in a pot. Just as the water starts boiling, hold a container filled
with cold water over the pot. As the steam comes in contact with the container,
it condenses to form droplets which will then fall down. This explains how rain
is formed.
The sun’s heat causes water to evaporate from the surface of the
oceans, lakes, rivers other water bodies, and land. This vapour rises into the
atmosphere where it condenses to form clouds. Because the air is cooler at
higher altitudes, the vapour is cooled to form small droplets that join
together to form larger drops which are then too heavy to remain in the air, so
they fall as rain. The diagram below shows the water cycle, also called the
hydrologic cycle.
The
hydrologic cycle
Types of rain
There
are three types of rain as explained below:
Convection rain
This is a rain formed through the rising of the moist air
currents, which condenses at higher altitudes to form clouds that result to
rainfall.
Convection
rain
Orographic rain or relief rain
Sometimes moist winds are forced by a high mountain to rise and
the moisture in it condenses to form rain. Rain formed in this way is called
orographic rain. The side of the mountain facing away from the direction of
wind gets little or no rain. This phenomenon is called the rain shadow effect.
Orographic
rain
An
example of the rain shadow effect in Tanzania is found on the western side of
Mount Kilimanjaro. Winds blow from the Indian Ocean in the east and are forced
by this Convection rain mountain to rise up and drop moisture on the eastern
and south western slopes. When these winds blow over to the western side of the
mountain, they are already relatively dry. As a result, they bring very little
rain to the Masai steppe. Other examples are the Rocky Mountains which affect
the rain-bearing winds from the Pacific; and the Andes in Chile which affect
the rain bearing winds from the Pacific on the Patagonia plateau.
Cyclonic rain
Cyclonic rain occurs when large masses of air with different
characteristics of temperature and moisture meet. As the warmer and moist air
is forced up over the cooler and dry air, it expands, cools and water vapour
condenses to form clouds and rain.
Cyclonic
rain
On the
other hand, tropical cyclones are formed over oceans in the tropics between
latitude 8°N and 8°S. They usually bring very heavy rainfall and are associated
with thunderstorms and very fast moving winds which often cause destructions
along coastal settlements. In the Caribbean and USA, tropical cyclones are
called hurricanes. In Africa they are known as cyclones, while in China and
Japan they are called typhoons but in North Australia they are known as
Willy–Willies.
Rainfall is measured by an instrument called rain gauge.
Normally, the reading is done once every 24 hours. If need be, comments on the
nature, time and duration of rainfall should be added to the record.
THE RAIN
GAUGE
Rainfall figures entered in the record book for the month or
several months can be represented in the form of graphs known as histograms
(see the histogram below). Mean monthly rainfall records are usually obtained
by adding up rainfall of a particular month (say January) for a number of years
(say 30 years) and dividing this by the same number of years.
Total
annual rainfall recorded at Weather Station X
Another way of presenting rainfall figures is by drawing lines
on a map to link all places that receive the same amount of rainfall. These
lines are called isohyets. They are usually drawn at uniform intervals.
Isohyets
Importance of precipitation
Precipitation,
especially rainfall, plays an important role in weathering of rocks. It
dissolves the chemicals in rocks, thus helping to peel them apart. This action
is called weathering. The weathered rocks in turn form the soil. Weathering is
particularly influenced by temperature and rainfall.
Some
sports such as skiing, skating, etc take place on frozen snow. Therefore, snow
as a form of precipitation, acts as a playground on which numerous games and
sports can take place.
Rain
provides us with the water we need for various uses such as irrigation,
drinking, washing, cleaning, etc. When it rains, water collects into streams
and rivers from where it is collected, purified and supplied to homes for
various purposes. Rain can be harvested directly as it falls from the sky. It
is then stored in tanks for later use. Rain water is natural, pure and can be
used without any further purification.
Rain is
an important component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing
most of the fresh water on the earth. It provides suitable conditions for many
types of ecosystems, as well as water for hydropower plants.
Humidity
Humidity
is the state of the atmosphere in relation to the amount of water vapour it
contains. Humidity indicates the degree of dampness of the air, and is one of
the main influences on weather. It is expressed in either absolute or relative
terms. Absolute humidity is the actual amount of water vapour present in a
certain volume of air at a given temperature, expressed in grams per cubic
metre. Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour present in a mass of
air, expressed as a percentage of the total amount of water vapour that would
be present when that air is saturated at that temperature. Air is saturated
when the atmosphere cannot hold any more water vapour. This condition depends
on the temperature and pressure of the air.
Humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer, which
consists of wet and dry bulb thermometers. The wet bulb thermometer is kept
moist (wet) by wrapping it in a muslin bag which is dipped in a container of
distilled water. When the air is not saturated, water evaporates from the
muslin and this cools the wet bulb causing mercury to contract. The dry bulb is
not affected in the same way. So the two thermometers show different readings.
But when the air is saturated the two thermometers show the same readings.
Therefore, when there is a big difference in readings between the two
thermometers, humidity is low and when there is a small difference, humidity is
high.
A
hygrometer
The
hygrometer consists of dry (left) and wet (right) bulb thermometers. Can you
notice a muslin bag dipped in a container of water?
Absolute
humidity is calculated after finding the dew point. Dew point is the critical
temperature at which air becomes saturated with water vapour. Further
condensation causes the formation of tiny drops of water called dew.
Atmospheric pressure
The air
around us has weight. Atmospheric pressure (or air pressure) is the weight of
the air resting on the earth’s surface. It is the weight exerted by air on the
earth’s surface.
The
force with which air presses down on a unit area is called atmospheric
pressure. But this pressure is exerted equally in all directions. Atmospheric
pressure can be demonstrated by the following experiment:
Take a
glass full of water, cover the top of the glass with a piece of thin paper, and
then hold the glass upside down. The water in the glass will not spill out
because pressure of the air is pressing the paper so that it does not fall out.
Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called a
barometer. There are two types of barometers, mercury barometer, and aneroid
barometer. Mercury barometer measures pressure in millimetres, usually
expressed symbolically as mmHg, read as millimetres of mercury. The pressure at
sea level is 76 mmHg. This is called standard pressure.
Simple mercury barometer
Aneroid
barometer
Pressure
is expressed in millimetres with reference to the height of mercury column.
When using an aneroid barometer we express pressure in millibars of force per
unit area. In physics, a unit of force known as a “dynes” per square
centimetres is called a “bar” and is now the standard unit of pressure
measurement. A bar is then divided into one thousand units called millibars. At
sea level, pressure is normally 760 mmHg or 1.034 kilograms of force per square
centimetre. This is equivalent to 1015.9 millibars or approximately one bar.
The diagram below shows the height of mercury column at high and
low pressures. When the atmospheric pressure is high, mercury level is pushed
up the glass tube. At low pressures, mercury column drops down.
Pressure is shown on a weather map, usually called synoptic map.
Lines drawn on a weather map joining places with the same pressure are called
isobars.
Isobars
The pressure is greatest at sea level where the whole thickness
of the atmosphere exerts its weight. But pressure decreases at the rate of 10
millibars for every 100 metres increase in height. This is because the
thickness of the atmosphere decreases, thus it exerts less pressure.
Relationship
between pressure and altitude
Winds
Wind is
the movement f air masses especially on the earth’s surface. Heated air
expands, becomes less dense and rises up. Cooled air contracts, becomes denser
and sinks down. When air sinks, its pressure increases because it is
compressed, but when air rises, its pressure decreases because its molecules
are spread over a large area. Areas from where heated air is rising are called
areas of low pressure, while areas in which cool air is sinking are called
areas of high pressure.
Usually,
there is a movement of air from high pressure to low pressure areas, which is
caused by differences in heating of air over different parts of the earth’s
surface. The air that moves from a region of high pressure to that of low
pressure is called wind. Wind is air in motion, from high pressure areas to low
pressure areas.
During the day the land is usually warmer than the sea, and the
air pressure on the land is lower than that over the sea. Therefore, air blows
from sea to land. This kind of air movement (wind) is known as sea breeze. But
during the night the land is cooler than the sea and there is low pressure on
the sea. Therefore, winds blow from the land to the sea. This air movement is
called land breeze.
Sea breeze
(day) and land breeze (night)
On the Earth’s surface, the regions of the north and south poles
are very cold and have high pressure while the belt along the equator is very
hot and has low pressure. This makes air move from the poles towards the
equator. In the equatorial belt, rising air is replaced by air moving in from
the north and south of the equator. We should then expect two belts of wind
blowing towards the equator. But this is not exactly so because the earth
rotates from west to east, and according to Ferrel’s law air or water moving
freely in any direction over the Earth’s surface is turned (deflected) to the
right of its course in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. Therefore, any winds blowing from the north towards the equator in
the northern hemisphere will blow from the north east and not from the north,
and any winds blowing from the south towards the equator in the southern
hemisphere will blow from the south east and not from due south.
Winds
blowing from NE and SE
In the
equatorial belt of low pressure, between 5°N and 5°S latitudes, intense solar
heating causes the moist air to rise in great convection columns. This belt is
called the doldrums or low pressure belt. The rising air spreads out and moves
towards the poles. In so doing, it cools and thus contracts, and develops high
pressure. This occurs around 30°N and 30°S. Thus, the air sinks and builds up
high pressure at these latitudes. These latitudes are called horse latitudes or
subtropical high pressure cells.
In latitudes 30°N and 30°S some of the high pressure air moves
over the surface towards the equator as the north east and south east trade
winds. Some moves over the surface towards the poles as westerlies.
Wind belts
of the world
In each hemisphere, there are three wind systems which operate
between the indicated latitudes:
·
The Polar wind system (between the North Pole and 60°N; and between the South Pole and
60°S).
·
The tropical wind system (between 30°N and 60°N; and 30°S and 60°S).
·
The equatorial wind
system (between
30°N and 30°S).
Occasionally
in the westerly wind system, depressions and anticyclones develop. A depression
is an area of low pressure in which winds blow inwards in a circular motion.
This motion is anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
southern hemisphere. A depression develops when cold heavy air comes in contact
with warm most air. Depressions are usually associated with cyclonic rains.
Anti-cyclones are areas of high pressure in which winds blow in a clockwise,
circular motion in the northern hemisphere. They are associated with cool fine
weather with no rain and they normally follow a depression.
Wind
direction is measured by a wind vane or wind sock.
The wind vane consists of a freely rotating arm, fitted over a
central rod. The arrow of the wind vane always points in the direction from
which the wind blows, and the wind is named after this direction. Four arms
marking the direction of the cardinal points are fixed to the stationary
central rod.
A wind
vane
Wind
sock consists of a sock-like sheet of cloth fitted to top of a tall wooden or
metal bar, just like the flag is fitted to the flag post. The tail of the sock
points away from the direction of wind, and the direction of wind is named
after the head of the sock.
Wind socks are mainly used to show wind directions at airports
and airstrips in order to direct pilots when landing or taking off.
Wind sock
Wind speed is measured by an instrument called an anemometer.
This instrument consists of three or four horizontal arms pivoted on a vertical
shaft. Metal caps are fixed to the end of the arms so that when there is a wind
the arms rotate. This movement operates a meter which records the speed of wind
in kilometres per hour.
Anemometer
Cloud
cover
Cloud cover (also known as cloudiness, cloudage or cloud amount)
refers to the fraction of the sky obscured by clouds when observed from a
particular location. The cloud cover is observed by using eyes. There is no
special instrument for recording the cloudiness. Okta is the usual unit of
measurement of the cloud cover. One okta represents approximately 1/8 of the
sky with cloud cover. If approximately 3 segments out of 8 are covered in
clouds, then the cloud cover is written as 3/8 cloud cover. These are 3 oktas.
8/8 means the cloud is completely covered by clouds. The figures below
represents the symbols used to represent cloud cover in oktas.
Symbols
used to show cloud cover
Simple observation can be made such as:
·
Clear - no cloud cover.
·
Partly cloudy - less than half cloud cover.
·
Mainly cloudy - more than half cloud cover but with some breaks
in the cloud.
·
Overcast - complete cloud cover.
Sunshine
The
amount of sunshine we have depends on latitude and how much cloud there is in
the sky. In some of the world's deserts the number of sunshine hours is very
high, more than 3,600 hours each year. In the Eastern Sahara desert, the sun is
covered by clouds for less than 100 hours a year.
Hours of sunshine are usually recorded on a simple machine
called a parheliometer also known as a Campbell-Stokes recorder.
Campbell’s
Sunshine Recorder
It works by using a glass ball to focus the sunlight and rays
onto a strip of card. As the sun moves round during the day, the card is
scorched, creating a record of how many sunshine hours there were.
Importance of sunshine
The
energy from the sun can be trapped, harnessed and put into various uses
including cooking, heating, lighting and operating machines. It also affects
the amount of heat received on the earth. When the sun shines for many hours,
the temperature of the earth rises and when there is no sunshine the
temperature drops down.
The
sun’s energy is used by green plants to make their own food through the process
of photosynthesis. Solar energy is also used to dry crops, clothes, etc. Our
skins are also capable of converting the solar energy into vitamin D.
Evaporimeter
An
evaporimeter is an instrument used to measure the speed and amount of
evaporation of water from the surface of the earth. There are two types of
evaporimeters:
Tank evaporimeter—measures
evaporation from an open and free water surface. The tank is filled with water
to a known level and then exposed in an open area which is free from
obstructions where water is left to evaporate. The water level is measured
using a micrometer screw gauge. Any reduction in the level of water is because
of evaporation.
Tank
evaporimeter
Piche evaporimeter—measures evaporation
from a continuously wet and porous surface.
Importance of Elements of Weather
Explain
the importance of each element
Importance
of temperature
·
Temperature is an important factor in rain formation.
Temperature causes the evaporation of water vapour from water bodies, land and
plants. The resulting water vapour then condenses to make clouds that form
rain.
·
Temperature is the main factor in the creation of wind. When the
sun heats the earth’s surface unevenly, the resulting changes in temperature
create changes in pressure and density. The ultimate result of these changes is
the movement of air from a region of high pressure (cold area) to an area of
low pressure (heated area). This movement of air is called wind.
·
Plant growth and development is also highly influenced by
temperature. It affects transpiration, seed germination and the rate of photosynthesis
in different ways.
·
Temperature controls planting dates and the growth of plants as
well as insect pests and crop diseases. As an integral part of weather,
temperature also determines the type of precipitation that might occur if you
are in a location that is experiencing near freezing.
Weather Station
Meaning of Weather Station
Define
weather station
A
weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and
equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for
weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate. The measurements taken
include temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction,
and precipitation amounts.
Wind
measurements are taken with as few as other obstructions as possible, while
temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar
radiation, or insolation. Manual observations are taken at least once daily,
while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather
conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly
different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature, wave
height, and wave period.
Weather
station data can be used to gauge current weather conditions and to predict the
future weather forecast, like temperature high/lows, cloud cover and
probability of precipitation. Weather stations are used by meteorologists,
weather buffs, gardeners, farmers, outdoor enthusiasts, students, pilots and
anyone who enjoys weather data or relies on the weather to make decisions.
How to Establish Elements of Weather
Explain
how to establish elements of weather
Selecting
an appropriate site for the weather station is critical for obtaining accurate
meteorological data. Typically, the site should represent the general area of
interest, and be away from obstructions such as buildings and trees.
When establishing a weather station the following guidelines
must be considered:
1. The
station should be located on an open space with free circulation of air.
2. There
should be a wide view of the surrounding landscape and the sky.
3. The
site should be free from obstructions by trees, buildings, mountains, etc. The
station should not be under the shadows of objects. The open areas should be
covered by short grass, or where grass does not grow, the natural earth. Avoid
large industrial heat sources, rooftops, steep slopes, sheltered hollows, high
vegetation, shaded areas, swamps, areas where snow drifts occur or low places
holding stagnant water after rains.
4. The
ground should be plain or gently sloping at a gradient not more than 5°.
5. The
station should be fenced to keep off intruders, trespassers and passers-by and
should always be locked. Only authorized people should have access into the
station.
6. The
geographical location of the station should be established by placing a compass
in the station. This will help in determining the direction of wind shown by a
wind sock /vane put in the station.
A weather
station
Characteristics of a Stevenson Screen
Describe
characteristics of a Stevenson screen
A Stevenson screen or instrument shelter is an enclosure
intended to shield meteorological instruments against precipitation and direct
heat radiation from outside sources, while still allowing air to circulate
freely around them. It forms part of a standard weather station.
Exterior
of a Stevenson screen
Characteristics and Functions of Instruments Used to Measure the
Elements of Weather
Describe
the characteristics and functions of instruments used to measure the elements
of weather
The
Stevenson screen holds instruments that may include thermometers (ordinary,
maximum/minimum), a hygrometer, a psychrometer, a dew cell, a barometer and a
thermograph. Its purpose is to provide a standardized environment in which to
measure temperature, humidity, dew point and atmospheric pressure.
The traditional Stevenson Screen is a box shape, constructed of
wood, in a doublelouvered design. However, it is possible to construct a screen
using other materials and shapes, such as a pyramid. The World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) agreed standard for the height of the Stevenson Screen is
between 1.25 m and 2 m above the ground.
Interior
of a Stevenson screen
The
siting of the screen is very important to avoid data degradation by the effects
of ground cover, buildings and trees. It is recommended that the screen be
placed at least twice the distance of the height of the object, e.g., 20 m from
any tree that is 10 m high. In the northern hemisphere, the door of the screen
should always face north so as to prevent direct sunlight on the thermometers.
In polar regions, with twenty-four hour sunlight, the observer must take care
to shield the thermometers from the sun and at the same time avoiding a rise in
temperature being caused by the observer's body heat.
The general purposes of the Stevenson Screen are:
·
to ensure the safety of the delicate instruments kept in it
which could easily be damaged if kept in the open air;
·
to ensure accurate measurements of the meteorological data; and
·
to protect instruments against precipitation and direct sunlight
and heat, while still allowing air to circulate freely around them.
Measuring Elements of Weather
Measure
and record elements of weather
Activity 1
Measure and record elements of weather
The Meaning of Weather Forecasting and How it is Done
Describe
the meaning of weather forecasting and how it is done
Weather
forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state
of the atmosphere for a given location.
Weather
forecasting methods
The
nature of modern weather forecasting is not only highly complex but also highly
quantitative. There are several different methods that can be used to create a
forecast. The method a forecaster chooses depends upon the experience of the forecaster,
the amount of information available to the forecaster, and the level of
difficulty that the forecast situation presents. The various methods used in
forecasting the weather are as follows:
Numerical method
More
recently it has been realized that other methods can more accurately predict
the future weather than was possible in the past. The numerical method involves
a lot of mathematics. This method is based on the fact that gases of the
atmosphere follow a number of physical principles. If the current conditions of
the atmosphere are known, these physical laws may be used to forecast the
future weather.
Numerical
weather forecasting is made possible by making observations of the atmosphere
by means of radiosonde stations all over the world. A radiosonde is a small
weather station coupled with a radio transmitter. The radiosonde is attached to
a helium or hydrogen-filled balloon, generally called a weather balloon, and
the balloon lifts the radiosonde to altitudes exceeding 30 km. During the radiosonde’s
ascent, it transmits data on temperature, pressure, and humidity to a sea-,
air-, or land-based receiving station. Often, the position of the radiosonde is
tracked through GPS, radar, or other means, to provide data on the strength and
direction of winds aloft. Thus the radiosonde flight produces a vertical
profile of weather parameters in the area above which it was launched.
At precisely the same time each day (0000 and 2400 UTC), weather
personnel across the planet release radiosondes to the sky. The data obtained
are processed, correlated with data from other radiosondes, and used to create
an instantaneous picture of weather conditions throughout the world. The data
are used not only to understand current weather patterns but also as inputs for
longer-range computer-based forecasting models.
A
radiosonde
Satellites
Radiosonde data are supplemented by means of radiometric
observations from satellites which also provide data on humidity and cloud
cover. For viewing large weather systems on a worldwide scale, weather
satellites are invaluable. Satellites show cloud formations, large weather
events such as hurricanes, and other global weather systems. With satellites,
forecasters can see weather across the whole globe: the oceans, continents, and
poles. Recent satellite data is very detailed, even to the point of showing
states and counties.
Persistence method
This is
the simplest way of producing a forecast. This method assumes that the
conditions at the time of the forecast will not change. For example, if it is
sunny and 30°C today, the persistence method predicts that it will be sunny and
30°C tomorrow. If ten millimetres of rain fell today, the persistence method
would predict ten millimetres of rain for tomorrow.
Trends method
This
method involves determining the speed and direction of movement for fronts,
high and low pressure centres and areas of clouds and precipitation. Using this
information, the forecaster can predict where he or she expects those features
to be at some future time. For example, if a storm system is 100 kilometres
west of your location and moving to the east at 20 kilometres per day, using
the trends method you would predict it to arrive in your area in 5 days.
Climatology method
The
Climatology Method is another simple way of producing a forecast. This method
involves averaging weather statistics accumulated over many years to make the
forecast. For example, if you were using the climatology method to predict the
weather for Dar es Salaam on July 4th, you would go through all the weather
data that has been recorded for every July 4th and take an average. If you were
making a forecast for temperature and precipitation, then you would use this
recorded weather data to compute the averages for temperature and
precipitation.
If
these averages were 33°C with 0.18 inches of rain, then the weather forecast
for Dar es Salaam on July 4th, using the climatology method, would call for a
high temperature of 33°C with 0.18 inches of rain. The climatology method only
works well when the weather pattern is similar to that expected for the chosen
time of year. If the pattern is quite unusual for the given time of year, the
climatology method will often fail.
Importance
of weather forecasting
Weather
forecasters alert farmers of the prospects of and amount of rainfall that is
expected in a particular area. This enables them to decide what kind of crops
to grow. If the forecast indicates little rainfall, then the farmers are
advised to grow crops that resist drought or those that take a short time to
mature. It, therefore, enables farmers to plan their farming activities well and
in advance.
Weather
forecasts and warnings are the most important services provided by the
meteorological profession. Weather warnings are also important because they are
used to save lives and protect property. The forecast saves lives and prevents
the destruction of properties. For example, forecasters often warn people about
the coming of extreme weather events such as tsunamis, earthquakes, floods,
hurricanes or strong winds so that they can vacate their residence to save
lives and property. This also enables people to get prepared to face the
aftermath of these extreme weather events. In severe weather situations,
short-term forecasts and warnings can help save lives and protect property.
Natural
disasters such as hurricanes and tornadoes result from certain weather pattern
combinations and can injure or kill thousands of people depending on their
scope. These disasters often do lasting damage to cities and ecosystems as
well. Because of this, being able to predict and understand weather patterns is
a very useful skill when preparing for disaster.
Forecast
based on temperature and precipitation is very important to agriculture and
therefore to traders purchasing, transporting and selling agricultural produce.
Sailing
and air travel are also highly controlled by the weather. We often hear of
cancellation of air and sea travels due to harsh weather conditions. Accurate
weather forecast therefore enables the marine and air transport personnel to
schedule their travels in advance.
On
everyday basis, people use weather forecast to determine what clothing to wear
on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain,
snow and wind, forecast can be used to plan activities around these events and
prepare to survive them.
Weather
forecasting in Tanzania
In
Tanzania, weather forecast is conducted by Tanzania Meteorological Agency
(TMA). This is a government body responsible for weather forecasting and
dissemination of forecasting information to the general public. The agency
forecasts weather on daily basis and alerts the public about the prospects,
intensity and the expected consequences likely to be caused by weather
phenomena such as rainfall, storm, sea waves, atmospheric pressure. Information
about the forecast is used by the government to protect life and property. It
is also used by individuals to plan a wide deal of their daily activities.
CLIMATE
Concept of Climate
The Concept of Climate
Define the
concept of climate
Climate
is the average weather conditions of an area observed and recorded over a long
period of time (about 30 years).
The
scientific study of climate is called climatology and a person who studies
climate is called climatologist.
Weather and Climate
The Difference between Weather and Climate
Differentiate
between weather and climate
There
are marked differences between weather and climate. The table below summarizes
these differences.
Weather |
Climate |
|
Describes the
atmospheric conditions at a specific place and time. |
Describes the
average atmospheric conditions of a place over a specific period of time. |
|
Weather is defined
as the day to day state of the atmosphere, and it is short-term (minutes to
weeks) variation. |
Climate is defined
as statistical weather information that describes the variation of weather at
a given place for a specified time interval. |
|
Weather conditions
are measured over a short period e.g. a few hours or days. |
Climate conditions
are measured over many years, e.g., 30 years. |
|
Determined by real
time measurements of atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction,
humidity, precipitation, cloud cover, and other variables. |
Determined by
averaging weather data over periods of 30 years. |
|
Weather changes
abruptly within a short period. |
Climate changes
slowly and gradually over many years. |
|
Weather varies from
one place to another within a region. |
Climate remains
uniform over a large area. |
|
Most weather
elements are measured by weather instruments. |
Climatic elements
are not measured but calculated from the recorded weather data. |
Factors
influencing weather and climate
Usually, the elements of weather (which make up climate) vary
from place to place. In the lesson on weather we learned about the elements of
weather. Because climate is influenced by weather, the elements of weather are
the same as the elements of climate. Therefore, the factors that cause
variation in weather elements will likewise influence the climate. The factors
influencing climate and weather are discussed below:
1. Latitude:This factor influences
temperature and rainfall. Areas around and close to the equator experience
higher temperature and receive higher rainfall than those farther away. So the
rainfall and temperature decreases as one moves away from the equator.The
amount of heat received at any place on the earth’s surface depends on the
angle at which the sun’s rays strike the surface of the earth and the duration
of the sunshine. At the equator, the sun’s rays fall on the Earth’s surface at
almost right angles throughout the year, but the angle at which the sun’s rays
strike the Earth’s surface decreases as one moves towards the poles.Therefore,
temperatures decrease with increase in latitude because the equator receives
vertical rays of sunlight while the north and the south poles receive slanting
rays. Because of this fact, the equator and places near the equator are hotter
while places in or near the south and north poles are colder.
2. Altitude:This influences
temperature and atmospheric pressure of an area. Temperature decreases with
increasing altitude at the rate of 0.6°C for every 10 metres rise in altitude.
Therefore, low-altitude areas are warmer than high altitude areas. Atmospheric
pressure decreases with increasing altitude. Pressure at sea level is higher
than pressure at the summit of a high mountain.
3. Ocean currents:The nature of the ocean
current influences the temperature of the wind blowing over it and transfers
this influence to the land adjacent to the ocean. This will either lead to
reduction or increase in the temperature of the land depending on the type of
the ocean current. The wind blowing over warm ocean currents will pick moisture
from the ocean and often causes heavy rainfall over the land while the wind
blowing over the cold ocean current brings little or no rainfall to the land.
4. Distance from the sea:This influences
temperature and rainfall. Places located near the sea experience high
temperature and receive high rainfall than those located farther away. This is
because of high rates of evaporation from the water surface, which eventually
causes heavy rainfall along the coastal areas. For this reason, coastal regions
often experience higher temperatures and rainfall than inland areas.
5. Aspect:This term refers to the direction in which a
slope faces. It influences temperature and rainfall. For example, the south
facing slopes in the northern hemisphere are always warmer than the
north-facing slopes. Also the windward side of the mountain receives heavier
rainfall than the leeward side.
6. Wind and air masses:Wind carries moisture
with it as it flows. Warm wind blowing over a cold region warms the cold region
over which it flows. However, if the wind is cold, it cools the region.Warm,
moist wind blowing towards a cold, dry region may lead to formation of rainfall
in the destination region. Cold, dry wing blowing over a dry region brings no
rainfall and if the blowing is repeated over several years, it may cause
aridity in that region.
7. Alignment of the coastline:This
refers to the arrangement of the region’s coastline in relation to the
direction of the wind. If the winds blow across the coastline they cause
rainfall. If they blow in parallel to the coastline, they cause drought.
8. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):This is
a low-pressure area around the equator. The moist winds meet within this
region. Places farther away from this zone experience only one rainy season
while places close to the zone experience two seasons of heavy rainfall. This
is because the winds converge around this region twice a year.
9. Forests:Areas covered with forests normally receive
high rainfall as compared to those with little or no vegetation. This is
because of high rates of evaporation and transpiration, leading to high
humidity. Therefore, these areas often, receive high amounts of rainfall and
have a modified climate.
10. Human activities:A range of human
activities such as agriculture, mining, transportation, construction, etc
affects the climate. For instance, clearing of the forests to get land for
agriculture and settlement leads to the loss of biodiversity, making the land
arid and unproductive.
Impact of Climate
Relationship between Climate and Human Activities
Relate
climate to human activities
Climate
has many impacts to human activities. Various economic activities conducted by
man in different parts of the world are governed by the type of climate
experienced in a particular region. For example, people living in deserts and
semi-arid regions do not practice much agriculture because their environment
does not favour crop cultivation or animal husbandry. In these regions,
however, a very limited agriculture and animals rearing is conducted. The
animals kept include camels, goats, sheep, donkeys and other hardy animals.
Only drought resistant crops such as dates are grown in deserts and arid areas.
In
tropical and equatorial regions, a lot of agriculture is carried out. The
inhabitants of these regions take part in cultivation of crops and keeping of
animals. Crops grown include cocoa, banana, horticultural crops and grains. The
animals kept in these climatic zones include cattle, pigs, donkeys, horses,
poultry and other farmyard animals. Specific types of various economic
activities carried out in each climatic region will be discussed in detail in
the section below.
THE
MAJOR WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS
Different
regions of the world experience different amount of temperature and rainfall.
The differences in the amount of rainfall and temperature experienced in
different regions of the world make them have different climatic
characteristics. This gives rise to various climatic regions around the globe.
Temperature and rainfall are the main elements that determine the type of
climate. Both elements vary considerably from one region to another and form a
basis for classifying climate. The five broad types of climate are hot, warm,
cool, cold and arctic (very cold) climates. Each of these climates is further
subdivided into different subtypes as it will be explained in detail below:
HOT CLIMATES
These are the type of climates found within the tropics, mainly
between 23?° north and 23?° south of the equator. Hot climates include the
following climate sub types:
1. Equatorial
climate
2. Tropical
continental climate
3. Tropical
monsoon climate
4. Tropical
marine climate
5. Tropical
desert climate
Equatorial climate
The
region is found approximately between 0° and 5° north and south of the equator.
It may extend up to 10° north or south of the equator in some regions. Examples
of areas found within this region include the Amazon basin (South America), and
the Congo basin, the southern Ivory Coast, south Ghana, western coastal
Nigeria, and eastern coastal Malagasy Republic (all in Africa).
Climatic characteristics
a. There
are no marked seasons.
b. High
temperature throughout the year: - The annual temperature range is about 3°C. -
The daily mean temperatures are about 26°C all the year round.
c.
The daily temperature range is rarely more than 8°C because of
the thick cloud cover.
d. Rainfall
is heavy and is usually convection rain.
e.
Rainfalls usually occur in the afternoons and they are
accompanied by lighting and thunder.
f.
Total annual rainfall is about 200 mm with two maxima (peaks).
g.
High humidity and intensive cloud cover throughout the year This
climate can generally be described as hot and wet throughout the year, with a
small annual temperature range.
Highlands
located within the equatorial region have their temperatures modified by
altitude. The temperature of some of these highland areas, e.g., the East
African Highlands, is lowered to about 15°C. These regions are said to have a
modified equatorial climate.
Variations
on the basic type of climate occur in the highland regions of equatorial
Africa. The climate of most of these regions has an equatorial rainfall
pattern.
In
areas such as the south-eastern Nigeria, Cameroon, the south-east Asian islands
of Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, the climate is equatorial monsoon
because of the seasonal reversal of winds. This results in even heaver
rainfall.
Human
activities carried out in the equatorial climate region include shifting
cultivation and plantation agriculture. Crops grown in this region include
yams, cassava, maize, millet, sweet potatoes, sorghum, beans, water melons,
bananas and groundnuts. Examples of areas where this type of farming is
practiced include some parts of West Africa and Asia.
In
plantation agriculture, crops such as cocoa, rubber and oil palms are grown on
large scale farms. Most rubber plantations are found in Malaysia, Indonesia,
Thailand and Srilanka. They are also found in Liberia. Cocoa plantations are
found in Brazil and West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast). Oil palms are
grown in Nigeria, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Rainforests
are also common in equatorial regions. In Africa, the equatorial forests are
found in the Democratic Republic of Congo (RDC), Gabon and some parts of West
Africa.
Tropical continental climate
This
climate is also known as Sudan type or Savannah climate. In the interior of the
continents it is referred to as tropical continental climate.
Location: This
climatic region occurs between 5oN and 15oN and 5oS and 15oS though it extends
to 25o north or south of the equator. It is best developed in most parts of
Africa, and some parts of South America, India and Australia.
Climatic characteristics
a. Hot
summers (32oC) and cooler winters (21oC).
b. The
annual temperature range is about 11oC.
c.
The highest temperatures occur just before the rainy season
begins.
d. Heavy
rains, mainly convection, occur in the summer.
e.
Total annual rainfall is around 765mm, though this increases in
the areas lying close to the equatorial climate region. Similarly, rainfall
decreases towards the tropical deserts.
f.
Humidity is high during the hot, wet season.
This
climate is characterized by tall grass and trees which are more numerous near
the equatorial forest region. The savannah region is suitable for herbivores
animals such as giraffes, elephants, buffaloes, rhino, zebras, antelopes,
wildebeests and many other animals. There are also carnivorous animals such as
lions, leopards, hyenas, etc. The region also supports a variety of species of
birds, reptiles and insects.
People
living in this region mainly engage in livestock keeping, cultivation and
tourism. Also lumbering is practised. Many tourists come from foreign countries
to view the wildlife that live in the vast grassland. Numerous national parks
have been established in this region. In Tanzania, for example, there are
established national parks such as Serengeti, Mikumi, Selous, Tarangire, Ruaha,
Saadani, Ngorongoro, Katavi and Manyara.
The
major crops grown in this region are maize, millet, groundnuts, beans, onions,
cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, sisal, rice and coffee.
Tropical monsoon climate
The
areas which mainly experience monsoon type of climate are South East Asia,
Northern Australia, Southern China, and the Indian subcontinent. This type of
climate is most marked in India.
Climatic characteristics
a. Seasonal
reversal of winds (monsoon winds); onshore during one season and offshore
during another season.
b. Onshore
wind brings heavy rain to coastal regions while offshore winds bring little or
no rain, except where they cross a wide stretch of the sea.
c.
Temperatures range from 32ºC in the hot season to about 25ºC in
the cool season, giving an annual range of about 7ºC.
d. Annual
rainfall varies greatly, depending on relief and the angle at which onshore
winds meet the highlands (aspect).
e.
There are three marked seasons: cool, dry season; hot, dry
season; and hot, wet season.
This
climate can generally be described as having a hot, wet season and cool, dry
season. The main human activities carried out in areas experiencing this type
of climate include rice growing and livestock husbandry. Apart from rice, the
other crops grown are wheat, millet, maize, and sorghum.
Sugarcane,
cotton and juice are important lowland crops grown in India, Pakistan and
Bangladesh. The other crops grown are tea (Sri-lanka, Bangladesh and India) and
rubber in Malaysia. Animals kept in this climatic region include pigs, cattle,
buffalos, sheep, goats, and poultry.
Tropical marine climate
Regions
with this type of climate are located on the east coasts of regions lying
between 10oN and 25oN and 10o S and 25oS. These areas are under the influence
of onshore trade winds. The main areas are the east coasts of Brail and
Malagasy, the lowlands of central American and the west indies the coast of
Queen land (Australia) and the southern Islands of the Philippines.
Climatic characteristics
a. Temperature
characteristics are similar to those of the equatorial climate.
b. Hot
season temperature is 29ºC and cooler season temperature is 21ºC. (c) Annual
temperature range is about 8ºC.
c.
Total annual rainfall varies from 1000 mm to 200 mm depending on
the location.
d. Rainfall
is both convection and topographic (brought by onshore trade winds).
e.
Maximum rainfall occurs in the hot season.
f.
High humidity throughout the year.
This
climate can generally be described as hot and humid throughout the year.
However, the climate is cooled by the onshore winds blowing almost everyday.
The
main human activities carried out in this climatic region include crop
cultivation, lumbering and animal rearing. The crops grown include sugarcane,
rice, banana and wheat. The animals kept are such as cattle, pigs, sheep, goats
and poultry.
Tropical desert climate
The tropical desert climate occurs on the western margins of
landmasses between latitude 20o to 30o north and south of the equator. The
climate is experienced in all the major tropical deserts of the world. The hot
deserts occupy about one third of the earth’s surface. The principal tropical
deserts occur on the continents as follows:
1. Africa:
Sahara, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
2. Asia:
the desert of Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Israel, and the
desert of India.
3. North
America: Mohave, Colorado and Mexican Deserts.
4. South
America: Atacama Desert.
5. Australia:
Great Australian Desert
Climatic characteristics
a. Very
little total annual rainfall (less than 120 mm in any one year).
b. Mean
monthly temperatures range from 29ºC in the hot season to 10ºC in the cool
season.
c.
In most deserts, daytime temperature can rise to as high as 47ºC
or more.
d. Night
temperatures can fall to as low as 16ºC in summer and 5ºC in winter.
e.
Very high diurnal temperature range (due to very hot days and
very old nights).
f.
The annual temperature range is large. It is about 16ºC.
g.
Humidity is always low and therefore evaporation is high.
Desert
environments support very minimal human activities. Wherever water is available
as in oases (singular oasis), and along rivers, agriculture is practised. The
crops grown include date palms, cotton, rice, sugarcane, vines, millet,
tomatoes, tobacco and fruits. Apart from the people who live permanently in
oases, there are nomads who move from one place to another in search of
pasture. They keep camels, donkeys, goats and sheep. The camel is an animal
that has adapted to desert conditions. It can survive for many days without
drinking water. It is mainly used for transport in the desert. Other desert
people are good hunters and also collect food from the bushes.
The
other activities that can be done by desert dwellers include weaving mats,
making ropes, and trading.
WARM CLIMATES
Warm
climates border the hot tropical deserts. They occur between 30o and 40o north
and south of the equator.
There are four broad types of warm climates:
1. Warm
temperature western margin;
2. Warm
temperature continental;
3. Warm
temperature eastern margin; and
4. Warm
temperature desert.
Warm
temperate western margin (Mediterranean type). This is also known as the
Mediterranean climate
This
type of climate occurs between 30oN and 45oN and 30oS and 40oS on the western
sides of the continents. Places experiencing the Mediterranean climate are on
the coastal lands around the Mediterranean Sea (the Maghreb, Spain, Italy,
Greece, Egypt and Israel), the western sides of north and South America
(central California and central Chile), South Australia (Perth and Adelaide)
and South Africa (Cape Province).
General characteristics
a. Temperatures
range from 21ºC in the summer to 10ºC (or below) in the winter.
b. Mean
annual temperature is about 15ºC.
c.
Annual total rainfall varies from 500 to 900 mm.
d. Hot,
dry summers and cold, wet winters. This is because westerly winds blow off
shore in the summer and on shore in the winter.
The
Mediterranean climate can generally be described as having hot, dry summers and
middy, rainy winters.The climate permits a wide range of crops to be grown,
which include fruits and cereals. It is in this region that much of the world’s
citrus fruits are grown. Citrus fruits include oranges, lemons, grapes and
limes. Other fruits grown here are peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, olives,
almonds and pears.
The
cereals include maize, wheat, rice and barley. Agriculture has given rise to
specialized industries such as wine-making, flour-milling, fruit canning and
food processing industries.
Warm temperate continental (steppe type)
This
type of climate is also known as warm temperate interior region.
Location: It
occurs in the interior of the continents, between 20o and 35o north and south
of the equator. The best examples of the areas having this climate are
Murray-Darling lowlands of Australia; The high Veldt of South Africa; and the
central Paraguay and central Argentina (both in South America); central
lowlands of north America (Oklahoma and Texas and in northern Mexico); central
European lowlands, and the plains of Manchuria.
Climatic characteristics
a. Temperatures
range from 26ºC in the summer to 10ºC in the winter.
b. The
annual rainfall varies from 380 to 700 mm, depending on the distance from the
sea.
c.
Rainfall is convectional type and falls mainly in spring and
early summer. The main economic activities carried out in this region are
cattle rearing and crop growing. Tourism is also practised.
Warm temperate eastern margin (China type)
Location: It
occurs in the eastern sides of the continents between latitudes 23o and 35o
north and south of the equator. The countries having this type of climate are
central China, south eastern USA, southern Brazil, eastern part of Argentina,
South Africa, southern Brazil, eastern part of Argentina, South Africa,
southern Japan, and south eastern Australia.
Climatic characteristics
a. Temperatures
are about 26oC in summer and 13oC in the winter.
b. The
total annual rainfall varies is about 1000 mm.
c.
The rain is convectional and torrential type and it mostly falls
in the summer.
Temperatures
and rainfall in this type of climate make it possible to grow crops and keep
animals. Lumbering is also practised in the forested areas. The crops grown
include rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco. Animals are extensively
kept in Argentina and Australia. The animals produce products such as meat,
milk, butter and cheese for consumption and export.
Warm temperate desert
This
type of climate is also called mid-latitude desert climate. The areas having
this type of climate include Nevada and Utah states of North America and Pentagonia
in South America. It is also found in regions that extend from Turkey, northern
Iran, across the Caspian sea and Aral areas into former USSR. It is also
experienced in the Gobi desert of Mongolia.
COOL CLIMATES
These climates are experienced in regions between 35o north and
60o south of the equator. They are characterized by definite seasonal
variations in temperature. There are four types of cool climates:
1. Cool
temperate continental (British type);
2. Cool
temperate continental (Siberian type);
3. Cool temperate
eastern margin (Laurentian type); and
4. Temperate
desert.
Cool temperate western margin (British type)
It
occurs on the western sides of the continents between 45o and 60o north and
south of the equator. Areas with this type of climate include North West
Europe, British Columbia in western Canada, Southern Chile, Tasmania, and the
south Island of New Zealand.
Climatic characteristics
a. Winter
temperatures range between 2ºC and 7ºC, while summer temperatures range from
13ºC to 15ºC.
b. The
annual temperature range is between 8ºC and 11ºC.
c.
Rain falls throughout the year, with maxima in winter.
d. The
total annual rainfall is about 760 mm.
e.
The rain is both convectional and cyclonic in nature.
People
living in this region engage in a myriad of economic activities which include
agriculture, mining, lumbering, manufacturing and commerce. Agriculture is of
extensive type and includes keeping of beef and dairy cattle and sheep and the
growing of wheat, barley oats, vegetables and fruits. In British Columbia
lumbering is an important economic activity. In Tasmania and New Zealand, sheep
rearing for wool and mutton is an important activity. Fruit farming, especially
apples, is practised throughout the region.
Cool temperate continental (Siberian type)
This
type of climate is found extensively in the northern hemisphere. It occurs in
the interiors of North America and Eurasia between 35º and 60ºN
Climatic characteristics
a. Moderately
warm summers (18º) and very cold winters (-19ºC).
b. The
annual temperature range is very high (37ºC).
c.
Most of the rain falls in the summer.
d. The
rain is convectional type and is often accompanied with thunder.
e.
The annual precipitation (rain plus snow) ranges from 400 to 500
mm.
The
main human activities in this region include lumbering fishing, mining and some
agriculture.
Cool temperate western margin (Laurentian type)
It
occurs on the eastern sides of the continents between 35oN and 5oN, and south
of 40oS. It is experienced mainly on the eastern sides of North America and
Asia.
Climatic characteristics
a. Winter
temperatures range from -10ºC to 4ºC.
b. Summer
temperatures range from 12ºC to 24ºC.
c.
The annual temperature range is large and averages 24ºC.
d. Precipitation
(in the form of rain and snow) is distributed throughout the year.
e.
Annual precipitation varies between 700 and 1000 mm. (f)
Rainfall is both convectional and cyclonic.
The
main economic activities in this region are farming, mining, and manufacturing.
The crops grown include wheat, maize, millet and soya beans. Sheep farming is
important in Patagonia. Mining and manufacturing are practised where minerals
are found.
Temperate desert
This
climate occurs in the interiors of Eurasia and North America, and in Patagonia
(South America).
Climatic characteristics
a. Winters
are very cold with temperatures often below -7ºC.
b. Summer
temperatures vary between 25ºC and 37ºC.
c.
Diurnal temperature range is about 35ºC while the annual
temperature range is about 40ºC.
d. Precipitation
is very low, it averages about 250 mm.
e.
Most of the rain falls in late winter and early spring.
The
human activities carried out in this region include mining, animal rearing and
some agriculture. The animals reared are such as camels, donkeys, sheep and
goats. The main crops grown in this region are date palms, oil palms, and
millet. Agriculture is mostly practised in oases and along river valleys.
COLD CLIMATES
Cold
climates are mainly experienced in regions between latitudes 60ºN and 68ºN
There are three types of cold climates:
1. Cold
temperate western margin;
2. Cold
temperate continental; and
3. Cold
temperate eastern margin.
Cold temperate western margin
This
climate is confined to coastal areas of Scandinavia and Alaska.
Climatic characteristics
a. Short,
cold summers with temperatures of about 12ºC.
b. Long
winters with temperatures ranging from -2ºC to 4ºC.
c.
Annual rainfall is about 750 mm.
d. Rain
falls in most months except the winter when show falls.
The
main economic activities practiced in this region include agriculture, mining
and manufacturing. Dairy cattle farming is mainly practiced in the Scandnavian
countries such as Norway Denmark and Sweden.
Cold temperate Continental
This
climate occurs between 55oN and 68oN in the interior of America and Eurasia.
Climatic characteristics
a. Cold
and long winters with temperatures ranging between -34ºC and -45ºC.
b. Warm
and short summers with average temperatures up to 21ºC.
c.
Annual precipitation is very low, about 380 mm. (d) Most of the
rainfalls in summer, but in winter, precipitation is in the form of snow.
Cold temperate eastern margin
This
climate occurs in the north east pacific of Russia.
Climatic characteristics
a. Long,
cold winters with an average temperature as low as -20ºC or below.
b. Short,
hot summers with an average temperature up to 21ºC or higher.
c.
Total annual rainfall varies between 500 and 1000 mm.
ARCTIC CLIMATES
These
types of climates are experienced in regions beyond the Arctic Circle (661/2oN)
and around Arctic Ocean. They are also known as polar deserts. The main
features of these climates are low amounts of precipitation (rain), mild summers
and very cold winters.
Arctic
climates comprises of Tundra and Polar climates
Tundra climate
This
region occurs in the northern coast of North America, southern coast Greenland
and the Arctic coast of Europe and Asia.
Climatic characteristics
a. Very
long, cold winters with temperatures ranging between -29ºC and - 40ºC.
b. Short,
cool summers with temperatures of about 10ºC.
c.
Annual precipitation is 250 mm; some of it falls as snow in
winter and as rain in summer.
Polar climate
It
occurs in the interiors of Iceland, Greenland and Antarctica.
Climatic characteristics
a. Temperatures
are permanently below 0ºC.
b. Precipitation
is in the form of blizzards (now storms).
c.
The winters consist of continuous night, and summers of
continuous day.
Because
temperatures are very low, most these regions are uninhabited and hence limited
human activities take place here. The natural occupations are hunting, fishing
and herding of reindeer.
Mountain climate
This
type of climate occurs in the main mountain areas of the world. The areas that
experience such climates include the East Africa Mountains, the Ethiopian
highlands, the mountains and plateaus of central Asia, the Alps of Europe, the
Andes of South America and the Rockes of North America.
Climatic characteristics
a. Pressure
and temperature generally decrease with increase in altitude.
b. Precipitation
increases with altitude.
c.
In areas around mountains within the tropic, temperatures may
range from high at the foot of a mountain to very cold at the peak, e.g. Mount
Kilimanjaro.
We have
seen how particular climatic conditions influence human activities. Now, let us
see how specific climatic conditions are suitable for given human activities.
Agriculture
Agriculture
is strongly influenced by weather and climate. The nature of agriculture and
farming practices in any particular location depends on the type of climate
experienced in that location.
Crops
thrive well in any area with a fertile soil and which receives sufficient
rainfall as well as optimum temperature conditions. In such areas both
commercial and subsistence crops may be grown.
The
equatorial region receives high rainfall and experiences high temperature
throughout the year. This climate is suitable for crops that can thrive well in
moist and hot conditions. The crops that can be grown in this region include
cocoa, banana, rubber, sugarcane and yams.
Livestock
rearing can be practised in the tropics where rainfall permits the growth of
pastures. This area also supports the cultivation of a variety of tropical
crops such as fruits, tobacco, sugarcane, tea, maize, rice and a variety of
horticultural and cereal crops
Cooler
climates also support crops which grow better in climates like barley, wheat,
oats, sugar beet, and fruits such as apples, peaches and apricots. These areas
also support the rearing of dairy animals.
In semi
desert and desert climates where very little rainfall is received, there are
reduced agricultural activities. However, drought-resistant crops like millet,
date palms, oil palms and sorghum can be grown. The keeping of hardy animals
such as sheep, camels, donkeys and goats can be done.
Settlement
People
like to establish settlements in areas with favourable climates and which
support a variety of agricultural activities. Such areas are often
well-populated. Very hot or extremely cold areas are usually sparsely populated
because their climatic conditions are unfavourable for human settlement.
Forests
thrive well in areas that receive ample rainfall and which have adequate
temperatures. Dense forests of the world are concentrated in the equatorial and
tropical climates which experience high rainfall and temperature throughout the
year. The presence of forests in these regions stimulate lumbering and growth
of other industries such as paper-making and carpentry.
Fishing
Most of
the world’s fishing grounds are in cooler regions. The cooler water is thought
to support the growth of water plants called plankton on which fish feed.
Tropical areas are not suitable for fish as compared to regions with temperate
climates.
Tourism
For
tourism industry to flourish, the climate in the host countries must be
favourable enough to attract the tourists to visit them. Tropical countries,
like Tanzania, are often visited by tourists from cooler climates during winter
in their home countries to enjoy the warmth of the tropical countries where
they swim in warm waters and sunbath in tropical beaches.
Likewise,
the tropical climate supports numerous wildlife which serve as tourist
attractions. In Tanzania, for example, there are many national parks with
thousands of wildlife species and beautiful sceneries. The animals found in the
parks include elephants, buffaloes, zebras, lions, leopards, chimpanzees,
monkeys and a variety of reptiles, amphibians, insects and plant species.
Industry
The
establishment and growth of industries strongly correlate to the climatic
conditions. Most industries are established in areas where raw materials are
adequately available. For instance, milk, tea, tobacco, meat, fish and fruit
processing industries are often located where raw materials are found.
Likewise, lumbering industries are built close to forests.
Transport
Development
of the transport systems in some climatic regions is very difficult. For
example, the tropical and equatorial regions, which receive much rainfall
throughout the year, have poorly developed roads. Routes passing through areas
with clay soils become muddy and slippery when it rains. This makes it hard to
travel on earthy and murram roads. Roads in desert regions may be blocked by
sand blown onto them, making the roads impassable. In very cold regions,
precipitation in the form of snow may cover roads, making them impassable
during winter.
CLIMATE
CHANGE
Climate
change is a large-scale, long term shift in the planet’s climate (weather patterns
and temperatures). The overall effect of climate change is termed as global
warming.
Question Time 1
What is
global warming?
Global
warming refers to increase of the earth’s average surface temperature due to
effects of the greenhouse gases. These gases trap heat that would otherwise
escape from the earth. The greenhouse gases include water vapour (H2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), dinitrogen oxide or nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone
(O3) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Since
the early 20th century, the global air and sea surface temperature has
increased by about 0.8°C, with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since
1980. Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the
earth’s surface than preceding decades since 1850.
The
recent rapid warming was caused by human activities which contribute to the
production of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, that trap heat in the
earth’s atmosphere. It is predicted that the continuation of these activities
will result in 1.8–4°C average temperature increase over the next century.
Causes of global warming
Scientific
understanding of the cause of global warming has been increasing. Global
warming is mostly caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. The following greenhouse gases are the main contributors to
global warming. They are the main causes of global warming.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon
dioxide is the main greenhouse gas. The gas contributes over 50% of the
greenhouse effect. It is because of this reason that man is struggling to
reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The following are some of the man-made sources
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere:
Deforestation: Green plants absorb carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and
use it to manufacture their food through the process of photosynthesis. Cutting
down trees means that a few trees are left to absorb carbon dioxide gas from
the air. This has led to the increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
A
deforested land
Combustion of fuel: Burning
of fossil fuel such as wood, coal, petroleum and natural gas, releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. The gas is produced during combustion of these
fuels in car engines, power stations, industries, etc.
Methane
The
main source of methane is from agricultural activities. It is released from
wetlands such as rice fields and from animals, particularly cud-chewing animals,
like cattle. The emission of methane gas into the atmosphere, therefore,
increases with increase in agricultural activities. Since 1960s the amount of
methane in the air has increased by 1% per year, twice as fast as the build-up
of carbon dioxide. Methane is also produced by the decomposition of waste
materials by bacteria. It is the major component of natural gas. The gas is
also produced during the mining of coal and oil (as natural gas) and when
vegetation is burnt.
Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide, N2O)
Dinitrogen
oxide is produced from both man-made and natural processes. Human activities
which produce dinitrogen oxide include combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles
and power stations, use of nitrogenous fertilizers and burning of vegetation
and animal waste. During combustion of fuel in automobile engines, the air gets
so hot that nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form dinitrogen oxide.
The gas
is also produced by digesting bacteria, and is part of the nitrogen cycle, one
of the most important natural processes on earth.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
The
sources of CFCs in the atmosphere include refrigerators, air conditioners and
aerosols. CFCs are extremely effective greenhouse gases. One CFC molecule is
about 10,000 times more effective in trapping heat than a carbon dioxide
molecule. Some of them are up to 14,000 times effective than carbon dioxide,
the main greenhouse gas.
Effects of global warming
Global
warming is expected to have far-reaching, long-lasting and, in many cases,
devastating consequences for planet earth. The following are some effects of
global warming:
Increase in average temperatures
One of
the most immediate and obvious impacts of global warming is the increase in
temperatures on the world. The average global temperature has increased by
about 0.8°C over the past 100 years. Scientists predict that the earth’s
average temperature will increase by between 1.4 and 5.8°C by the year 2100.
Increase
in global temperature will affect both the land and the ocean environments. The
average temperature of the oceans has increased significantly in the past few
decades, causing negative effects on marine life.
When
the ocean water gets warm, the algae in the ocean tends to produce toxic oxygen
compounds called superoxides which are damaging for the corals. Global warming
is threatening the coral reefs to a great extent, and the fact is that if coral
reefs are wiped off the planet, it will affect one third of planet’s marine
biodiversity, as well as other ecosystems related to the coral reefs directly
or indirectly.
Extreme weather events
Extreme weather events include record-breaking high or low
temperatures, floods or intense storms, droughts, heat waves, hurricanes and
tornadoes, etc. These are effective measures of climate change and global
warming.
Floods
Scientists
project that extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, blizzards
and rainstorms will continue to occur more often and with greater intensity due
to global warming.
Other effects of extreme weather events include:
·
higher or lower agricultural yields;
·
melting of arctic ice and snowcaps. This causes landslides,
flash floods and glacial lake overflow;
·
extinction of some animal and plant species; and
·
increase in the range of disease vectors, that is, organisms
that cause diseases.
Change in world’s climate patterns
It is
forecasted that global warming will cause climate patterns worldwide to
experience significant changes. Climate change resulting from increasing
temperatures will likely include changes in wind patterns, annual precipitation
and seasonal temperature variations.
Climatic
patterns in most parts of the world have already changed. Rains fall when least
expected and at irregular intervals. This has greatly affected the timing of
planting and harvesting activities. Sometimes the rains fall so heavily to
cause floods, or too little leading to drought.
Most of
the arable land that once used to be productive is slowly turning arid. With
time, farmers will run short of the land for cultivation, a fact that will
result in famine.
Because
high levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are likely to remain high for
many years, these changes are expected to last for several decades or longer.
Rise in sea levels
Continued
increase in the global temperature will cause the melting of ice caps in the
poles and mountain glaciers. Melting polar ice and glaciers are expected to
raise sea levels significantly. Global sea levels have risen about 8 inches
since 1870 and the rate of increase is expected to accelerate in the coming
years. If current trends continue, many coastal areas will eventually be
flooded.
Scientists
predict that by the year 2100 the sea level will raise by at least 25 m,
leading to coastal flooding that will displace millions of people. Small
islands in the Caribbean, South Pacific, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean will be
totally covered by ocean waters.
Ocean acidification
As
levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase, the oceans absorb some of it.
This increases the acidity of seawater. Since the Industrial Revolution began
in the early 1700s, the acidity of the oceans has increased about 25%.
Because
acids dissolve calcium carbonate, seawater that is more acidic has a drastic
effect on organisms with shells made of calcium carbonate, such as corals,
mollusks, shellfish and plankton. The acid water is likely to dissolve the
carbonaceous shells, thus endangering the lives of these sea creatures. Change
in ocean acidity will also affect fish and other aquatic animals and plants.
If
current ocean acidification trends continue, coral reefs are expected to become
increasingly rare in areas where they are now common.
Effects on plants and animals
The
effects of global warming on the earth's ecosystems are expected to be profound
and widespread. Many species of plants and animals are already moving their
range northward or to higher altitudes as a result of warming temperatures.
Additionally, migratory birds and insects are now arriving in their summer feeding
and nesting grounds several days or weeks earlier than they did in the 20th
century.
Warmer
temperatures will also expand the range of many disease-causing pathogens that
were once confined to tropical and subtropical areas, killing off plant and animal
species that formerly were protected from disease.
These
and other impacts of global warming, if left unchecked, will likely contribute
to the disappearance of up to one-half of the earth's plants and one-third of
animals from their current range by 2050.
Effects on humans
As
dramatic as the effects of climate change are expected to be on the natural
world, the projected changes to human society may be even more devastating.
Agricultural
systems will likely be affected badly. Though growing seasons in some areas
will expand, the combined impacts of drought, severe weather, lack of snowmelt,
greater number and diversity of pests, lower groundwater tables and a loss of
arable land could cause severe crop failures and livestock shortages worldwide.
This
loss of food security might, in turn, create havoc in international food
markets and could spark famines, food riots, political instability and civil
unrest worldwide.
The
effect of global warming on human health is also expected to be serious. An
increase in mosquito-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever, as well as a
rise in cases of chronic conditions like asthma, are already occurring, most
likely as a direct result of global warming.
MAP WORK
The Concept of a Map
The Concept of a Map
Define the
concept of a map
A map
is a representation of an area of the earth’s surface on a flat surface such as
paper, wood, board, card, plastic, cloth or some other material.
The
information given in a map is shown by conventional signs and symbols which are
interpreted by the use of the “key”. A map shows important natural and man-made
features. Some maps show distributions like rainfall, temperature, air pressure
and population. On a map, lines of longitude and latitude are marked to show
the position of different areas.
Types
of maps
There are many different types of maps, which are generally
classifies according to the features they represent. Most of these maps are
grouped into two major types:
a. Topographic
maps
b. Statistical
or distribution maps
Topographic maps
Topographic
maps are maps that are used to show selected physical and human features of a
given area. These maps show:
Location:The
geographic location in a map may be shown using:
a. compass
bearing;
b. grid
reference;
c.
latitudes and longitudes;
d. political
and administrative boundaries; or
e.
use of place names.
Landscape: Some of
the landscape features shown on a topographic map are mountains, hills, plains,
lakes, rivers and shape of coastlines. Relief maps show distribution of relief
features such as hills, mountains, valleys and depressions.
Cultural features: Some of
the cultural features or artificial features are roads, railways, cities,
towns, dams and other structures built by man.
Uses of topographic maps
1. Topographic
maps are useful for describing features of the earth’s surface.
2. They
are used to show the direction. People use maps to reach their destination.
That is, they show which direction to go and how far to go.
3. Town
planners use maps to plan the best use of land.
4. Road
builders use maps to design new roads.
5. Farmers
use maps to plan the best use of their farmlands.
6. Maps
are essential to any field of study.
7. They
provide much information on the nature and distribution of geographical
phenomena e.g. settlement, population distribution, etc.
Statistical or distribution maps
These maps show such geographical phenomena as distribution of
rainfall, temperature, pressure, vegetation, crops, minerals and many other
phenomena. The commonly used statistical or distribution maps are Atlas maps.
Atlas maps are usually drawn to scale. They represent a large area of the
ground on a small space of paper. Maps of this nature are used to show various
geographical aspects:
a. Population
maps show distribution of people and settlements e.g. towns and cities.
b. Vegetation
maps show the distribution of vegetation, e.g. forests, bushes and grasslands.
c.
Political maps show political administrative divisions e.g.
countries, regions provinces and districts.
d. Climatic
maps show information on elements of climate such as rainfall, temperature and
winds.
e.
Economic maps show the distribution of various human activities,
e.g. farming, tourism, transport and mining.
f.
Travel maps show the location of places and distribution of
hotels, camping sites, historical sites and other interesting places.
Characteristics of atlas maps
a. They
are drawn to scale.
b. They
show whole countries, continents or even the world on a single sheet of paper
or page.
c.
They show generalized information. They do not include or show a
great amount of detail as shown in topographic maps.
d. Atlas
maps may include and show the distribution of many features such as crops,
minerals, roads, railways, towns, relief, vegetation and many others. Such
details may be shown by the use of colours, signs and symbols.
e.
Atlas maps are simple and easy to read and interpret. They are
easy to draw or to reproduce.
Uses of statistical and distribution maps
1. They
are useful for describing the distribution of many features found on the
earth’s surface or showing certain selected features such as physical,
political, historical or economic features.
2. They
are useful for showing generalized information on large or small areas.
The following are examples of the uses of statistical or
distribution maps:
a. Physical
maps show the arrangement or distribution of mountains, hills, highlands,
lowlands, rivers and so forth. (b) Political maps shown areas with their
political and administrative boundaries.
b. Climatic
maps show the distribution of temperatures, rainfall, pressure, winds, climatic
regions, etc.
c.
Historical maps show the distribution of historical places e.g.
historical sites.
d. Economic
maps show the distribution of chief crops, animals, industries, roads, mines,
etc.
Components of a Map
Components of a Map
List all
the components of a map
These are basic prerequisites or qualities that any map should
have. A map should have:
a. a
title, which tells what the map is about;
b. a key
which is used to interpret the signs and symbols found on a map;
c.
a margin which bounds the map;
d. an
indication of the north direction; and
e.
a scale for showing the relationship between the distance on the
map and that on the ground.
Each of these components is discussed in detail below:
·
Title:The
title shows the topic or subject matter of the map. It gives the name of the
area which the map represents or the features represented on that map. The name
of the map enables the user to read and interpret the map easily.
·
Key:A key
is a list of symbols and signs with their meanings as used in the map. It
appears in a box at one of the bottom comers of the map. When these symbols and
signs are given in the key, it becomes easier to interpret a map and get
accurate information from it.
·
North direction:This is
a sign which shows the north direction. The sign gives an indication of the
direction towards the north. It is from this direction that other cardinal
points and positional locations of different areas on a map can be identified.
·
Margin:This is
a frame which encloses the area covered by the map. The margin is useful in
that it guides and limits the map users as they read maps.
·
Scale:The
scale of the map indicates the ratio between the map and ground distances. It
enables the map readers to make accurate estimation of distances on the map as
they would be measured on the ground.
A Scale and Different Ways Used in Representing a Scale
Define
scale and identify different ways used in representing a scale
A scale is a ratio between the distance on the map and the true
distance on the earth’s surface.
Maps
drawn to scale show the exact proportionality between the distance on the
ground and that on the map.
Map
scales are very crucial because they enable the map readers to calculate actual
distances and areas on the ground based on the scales shown on maps. It is not
possible to estimate the actual distance between two points on a map or a
particular area on a map without the use of the scale. Though every map should
have the scale, sketch maps are usually not drawn to scale. Sketch maps are
rough sketches drawn on a flat surface to represent a particular area on the
ground.
Types
of scales
Map scales are classified on two bases. They are classified
based on:
a. the way
they are expressed; and
b. their
size.
Classification of scales based on the way they are expressed
based on this mode, map scales may be expressed in any of the following ways:
1. As a
statement
2. As a
representative fraction
3. As a
linear scale
Statement scale
This is
the map scale stated in words or it is a verbal scale. The scale may be stated
as “one centimetre represents ten kilometres or 1 centimetre to 10 kilometres
or 1 cm to 10 km.”
It
should be noted that in all statement scales map distances are stated in
centimetres and ground distances in kilometres.For example it is wrong to
state” one centimetre represents five hundred metres. The correct statement is
“one centimetre represents a half kilometre.”
Properties of statement scales
1. They
are expressed as word or verbal statements
2. The
scales bear specific units of measurement. Usually the units representing map
distances are smaller than the actual ground distances, e.g. 1 cm represents 5
kilometres.
3. The
word “represent” and “not equal to” or “equivalent to” is used when expressing
statement scales. For instance, do not state “one centimetre is equal to one
kilometre”. This statement is wrong because one centimetre on a map is not
exactly equal to one kilometre on the ground but just a scaled representative of
the stated distance. The distance on the map is just taken as a representative
of but not equal to the distance on the ground. The statement above is
correctly stated as “one centimetre represents one kilometre”.
4. The map
distance always carries the digit 1 while that of the ground may be less than
or equal to 1. For example 1 cm represents ? km, 1 cm represents 1 km.
Representative fraction (RF) scale
This is
a type of scale which expresses the map distance as a fraction of the actual
distance on the ground, for example, 1:10000 or 1/10000. This means that one
unit on the map represents 10000 units on the ground.
Properties of RF scales
1. The
scales are either expressed as a ratio or fraction and do not bear any units.
The units may be deduced from the linear or statement scale shown on the map.
2. The top
number (numerator) stands for the map distance and is always reduced to 1.
3. The
bottom number (denominator) stands for the ground distance and is usually more
than 1.
It is
important to note that when assigning units of measurement to RF scales, both
the numerator and the denominator should bear the same units, e.g. 1 cm: 100
cm. The units used in most scales are centimetres. So, in case the units are
not given, assume the units are in centimetres.
Example 1
Consider a map with an RF scale of 1/10000 or 1:100000. A river
on this particular map measures 5 cm. Calculate the actual ground length of the
river.
Solution
Since 1
cm on the ground represents 100000 cm on the ground, then 5 cm will represent
5?100,000 cm = 500,000 cm . But 1 km = 100,000 cm. then, the actual ground
distance is 500,000/100,000 = 5km.
Linear (graph) scale
A
linear scale or line scale or graph scale is a line showing the distance on the
map that represents a given distance on the ground. It is expressed as a short
or long line sub-divided into smaller, equal units. The linear scale is
commonly placed at the bottom of the map. There are two categories of linear
scales: the short-line scale and the long-line scale.
A short line scale consists of a single, short line that
represents the actual ground distance. To get the unit of measurement on the
map, one has to measure the length of the line in centimetres.
Short-line
scale
A long line-scale consists of a long line that is sub-divided
into several equal parts. It has two sections: the primary section and the
secondary section.
Linear
scale
Properties of linear scales
1. The
scales are expressed graphically in the form of a line.
2. They
show the specific units of measurement.
3. They
give a direct measure of the distance on the ground represented by the
corresponding distance on the map.
4. The
scale has the advantage of remaining the same even after the map is reduced or
enlarged.
Classification of scales based on their sizes
Based on sizes, the scales are classified into three categories:
1. Small
scales
2. Medium
scales
3. Large
scales
Small scale
A map drawn using a small scale is called a small-scale map. A
small-scale map has the following characteristics:
1. It represents
a large area of the earth’s surface on a piece of paper.
2. The
features on a small scale map appear crowded and closer to each other than they
really are. As a result, they are not seen clearly.
3. The map
shows fewer details as it covers a large area on a piece of paper e.g. an atlas
map of the world, Africa or Tanzania. It only gives a general picture of the
area represented.
Examples
of small scales are: 1:10,000,000 or 1 cm:100 km; 1:1,000,000 or 1 cm:10 km
Medium scale
This is
a scale ranging between a small scale and a large scale.
Examples
of medium scales are: 1:500,000 or 1 cm:5 km; 1:250,000 or 1 cm:2.5 km
Large scale
A map drawn using a large scale is called a large-scale map. A
large-scale map has the following properties:
1. The map
shows many details of a small area on a piece of paper, e.g. a map drawn to
represent a small area such as a town, a certain location or village etc.
Therefore, more features can be represented on a large scale map.
2. The map
appears large in size though it represents a small part of the earth’s surface.
3. The
features on the map are large in size, so they can be seen quite clearly.
Examples
of large scales are: 1:50,000 or 1cm:.0.5km; 1:25,000 or 1cm:.0.25km
Difference between Signs and Symbols
Distinguish
and explain signs from symbols
The natural and artificial landscape features are represented on
maps by means of symbols and signs. Symbols and signs are the alphabet or
language of maps. As symbols and signs are important in giving information on a
map they should have the following qualities. They should be.
a. Easy to
read;
b. Easy to
understand;
c.
Easy to interpret; and
d. Correctly
and clearly shown and presented on any map.
Symbols
and signs are commonly shown at the key or reference or legend of the map. With
the aid of a key, reference or legend we can read and interpret a map. Symbols
that are used in maps usually look like the natural and artificial features
they represent. Signs usually do not look like the features they represent.
Also most of the symbols are pictorial while most signs are not.
The symbols and signs used on maps are used to improve the
appearance and readability of the map. Various symbols are used to depict
features such as buildings, mines, forests, water bodies, farmlands, etc.
Symbols and signs often used in maps
Quantitative
Information on Maps
The Distance on the Map and Converting to the Actual Ground by
Using Scale
Measure
the distance on the map and convert to the actual ground by using scale
One of the many tasks that a map reader might encounter when
reading maps is to take measurements. Measurements on maps involve:
a. measurement
of distances; and
b. calculation
of areas on maps.
The
conversion of map distances and areas into actual ground distances and areas
requires the application of scales. A distance is the length between two
specified points on a map.
Measurement
of distances on maps
Distances on maps can either be straight or curved (bent). A
straight or regular distance is one that has no bends or curves while a curved
(or irregular) distance is the one with bends or curves.
Tools for measuring distances
There are three main tools that are used for measuring distances
on maps. These are:
1. a long,
thin string or thread;
2. a piece
of paper; and
3. a pair
of dividers.
Measurement of distance using a thread or string
A long,
thin string such as sewing thread can be used to measure a stretch of many
curves or bends. This is the commonest method used by geography students to
estimate distances on maps. This method is also used to estimate straight
distances.
Procedures
·
Identify the distance to be measured on the map (e.g. a river,
road, railway line, etc) and mark its two ends with a sharp pencil. Mark one
end as A and the other as B.
·
Starting from one end of the string, trace the route (river,
road, etc) with a string as shown in the figure below:
·
Mark the string with an ink at point B.
·
Using a ruler or linear scale, measure the length of the string
between point A and B and estimate the actual distance on the ground using the
scale of the map provided.
Example 2
If the length of the section of the string between A and B is 20
cm and the scale of the map is one centimetre to one kilometre, then the length
of the route on the ground is 20 km.
Measurement of distances using a piece of paper
A piece
of paper can also be used to measure straight and irregular (curved, bent)
distances
Measuring straight distances
Procedures
·
Locate the distance to be measured on the map and mark its two
ends as A and B using a sharp pencil.
·
Take a piece of paper, fold it to form a straight edge and lay
the edge along the line AB and mark the exact length of the line on the edge of
the paper as shown in the figure below.
·
Transfer the paper to a linear scale (or ruler) as indicated in
the figure below so that the left hand mark (A) is on 0 (zero).
·
Use the provided scale to estimate the actual ground distance.
Measuring irregular (curved) distances
Procedures
·
Identify the length to be measured on the map. Use a sharp
pencil to mark both ends A and B.
·
Divide the route into sections which are more or less straight
as shown in the figure below.
·
Lay the straight edge of the paper on the first straight section
of the route. Mark with your pencil where the route bends (point 1).
·
Turn the paper so that the edge now lies along the second part
of the route. Make sure that the mark you made is still on the point where the
route bends. Now make another mark with your pencil at the bend (point 2).
·
Continue shifting the paper and marking the other distances
between the points on the route.
·
Remove the marked paper, and using a ruler, measure from where
you started to the last mark on the paper. If this distance is 20 cm and the
scale is 1 cm to 1 km, then the distance of the route between A and B is 20 km.
Measuring distances using a pair of dividers
Measuring straight distances procedures
1. Locate
the distance to be measured on the map and mark its two ends using a pencil.
2. Use a
pair of dividers to measure the distance between the two end points on the map.
3. If the distance
is longer than the length of the dividers even when fully stretched measure the
distance in sections and then sum up the lengths of all sections to get the
total length.
4. Place
the divider on the linear scale and read the distance. Then use the scale to
convert the obtained map distance into the actual ground distance.
Measuring irregular (curved or bent) distances
a. Division
method
b. Stepping
method
Division method
Procedures
1. Divide
the river, road, railway, etc into many, short straight distances.
2. Open
your dividers and measure all distances as shown in the figure below.
3. Add up
the map lengths of all sections along the route.
4. Use the
linear scale to get the actual ground length from the sum obtained in (iii)
above. The length of the route is equal to the sum of all sections, divisions
or short distances.
Add up
all the measurements: AB = 1 km; BC = 1 km; CD = 1 km; DE = 2 km; EF = 0.5 km;
FG = 2 km; GH = 0.5 km; HI= 1 km; IJ = 2 km = Total length = 10 km.
Stepping method
·
Open and set the pair of dividers to a known distance by using
the linear scale e.g. quarter or half a kilometre as shown in the figure below.
·
Follow the river, road or line by stepping along it using the
set dividers.
·
Add up the number of steps and multiply by quarter or half a
kilometre (depending on the set length).
Example 3
Suppose number of steps when the divider is opened to a quarter
kilometres wide is 20 and when it is a half, kilometre is 10. Then, the length
of the route is:
10 x ?
= 5 or 20 x ? = 5 kilometres
Note
that if the distance of the last step is less than the set distance of the
dividers, measure it separately and estimate its distance on the linear scale.
Add up this distance to the total distance from the steps to get the full
distance of the route (river, road or line).
Areas of Regular and Irregular Figures
Calculate
areas of regular and irregular figures
The
figures whose areas are to be calculated on maps can either be regular or
irregular
Calculating
areas of irregular shapes
Features
with regular shapes on maps are rectangular, triangular, square or circular.
Finding the areas of such figures is simple. Mathematical formulae are used to
calculate their areas. However, it is not common to find regular features on
maps.
Calculating areas of different regular shapes
1. Triangles
= L x W, where L = length and W = width.
2. Squares
=L2, where L = length of the side of a square.
3. Triangles
= ?bh, where b = length of the base and h = length of the height.
4. Circle
= πr2 or πD2/4, where r = radius, D = diameter and π = 3.14 or 22/7
Calculating areas of
irregular shapes: Features
with irregular shapes are very common on maps. These may include shapes of
lakes, forests, plantations, settlements, marshy land, etc.
An
irregular shape
There are three methods used to calculate areas of irregular
shapes. These are the:
a. division
method;
b. tracing
method; and
c.
grid square method.
Division method
In this method, the area to be measured is divided into
rectangles or squares and triangles or into several strips of the same length
and width. Then, the area of each resulting figure is calculated using
mathematical formula and summed up to get the total area.
1. Divide
the whole area into rectangles, squares or triangles.
2. Calculate
the areas of the rectangles, squares and triangles using mathematical formulae.
3. Sum up
individual areas to get the total area Remember that the area should be in the
same units as the map scale.
Example 4
The area above is divided into three figures A, B and C. The
area of the three resulting figures is calculated as follows:
Rectangle A: Area =
L x W = 10 x 5 = 50 km2
Triangle B: Area =
½bh = ½x 6 x 4 = 12 km2
Triangle C: Area =
½bh = ½x 4 x 3 = 6 km2
Total area = A +
B+ C = 50 +12+6 = 68 km2
Division of the area into strips
The stripping method involves dividing the area into strips and
then calculating the area of each strip separately. The total area is obtained
by summing up the areas of all rectangular strips.
Procedures
1. Divide
the area into uniform rectangular strips.
2. Calculate
the area of each rectangular strip separately. Remember that the areas of the
strips should be in the same units as the scale of the map.
3. Add up
the area of each strip to get the total area.
Area =
sum of the areas of all individual strips = area of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
Tracing method
1. Trace
off the outline (boundary) of the figure to be measured onto a tracing paper
(graph paper) or ordinary tracing paper and transfer the outline onto a squared
paper.
2. Tick
and count all complete squares and sum up their areas. Remember that each full
square measures 1 cm x 1 cm.
3. Mark
all incomplete squares with crosses.
4. Count
all incomplete squares and divide the sum by 2 to get the number of complete
squares.
5. Add up
the squares in (iii) and (iv) to get the total number of squares covering the
area of the figure to be estimated.
6. Using
the scale provided, find the area of one square in order to obtain the actual
area that would be covered on the ground. Note that the area that you calculate
is the approximate area.
According
to the figure above, the number of complete squares is 28. The number of
incomplete squares is 25. To get the complete squares, we divide 25 by 2, i.e.,
25 ÷ 2 =12.5
Hence
the total number of complete squares = 28 +12.5 = 40.5. This is the same as
40.5 cm2.
Assume
that the scale of the map is 1:50,000. Then, the area of 1cm by 1cm on the
ground is 0.5 x 0.5 km = 0.25 km2
Therefore,
the total actual ground area of the irregular shape is calculated thus: Area =
40.5 x 0.25 =10.125 km2.
Remember that if you don’t have the tracing paper you can draw
the squares straight on the map using the following procedures:
1. Mark by
a pencil the margin of area to be measured.
2. Using
the grid reference lines as your guidelines, draw the squares with faint pencil
lines across the area. If there are no grid lines make sure you draw right
angled squares across the figure.
3. Mark
your full squares and half squares and follow the above tracing method
procedures for calculating the area.
The grid square method
If the map provided has grid lines, the grid square method can
be used to calculate the area on the map. The grid squares formed by the lines
are used in this case. For example, in a topographical map of scale 1:50,000
the distance between two successive grid lines is 2 cm. This length is
equivalent to 1 km on the ground. Therefore, every grid square on a 1:50,000
map represents 1 km2 on the ground. Consider the diagram below:
The
procedures for calculating the area of a figure on a map with grid squares are
similar to those used in the tracing method discussed previously in this
chapter.
Location of Position
Identify
location of position
In map reading, position is a place where an object is situated
on the earth’s surface. The geographic position of a place may be shown by
using:
1. Place
names
2. Compass
bearing
3. Latitude
and longitude
4. Grid
reference
5. Political
and administrative boundaries
Use of
place names
Names
of places on maps may be used to locate the position of an area or place. Names
of places e.g. Morogoro, Tarime, Mbeya, etc are clearly marked and shown on
maps.
Compass bearing
Many
years ago it was discovered that a magnetized piece of iron or needle, if hung
or allowed to swing freely, will always point to the same direction. This
direction is called the North. It is from the north direction that we measure
other directions, that is, East, West and South.
A compass is an instrument used to measure directions from the
north. It consists of a free-swinging, magnetized needle which points to the
north and south magnetic poles.
A compass
The
compass can be used to show directions in the following ways:
North direction
The north direction may be shown by using; Geographic or True
North; Magnetic North and Grid Nortn.
1. Geographic
or True North is the direction towards the North Pole from any place on the
earth’s surface. It is always indicated by the north arrow. When reading
directions on maps we usually use the True North.
2. Magnetic
North is the direction to which the compass needle points. The magnetic North
is some distance from the True North and also varies from year to year in
relation to the True North.
3. The
Grid North is the direction towards the north in those maps drawn to grid
system.
Compass directions
There are four major directions, bearings or cardinal points on
maps with respect to a fixed point, be it true North or magnetic North. They
are marked by 90º.
The four cardinal points can further be sub-divided into eight
points of 45º
The eight points of a compass can further be sub-divided into
sixteen points of 22.5º
Bearings of a compass
Compass bearing shows the direction of a point with respect to
another point measured clockwise from 0o to 360o. Bearing is expressed in
degrees which are further sub-divided into minutes and seconds.
Bearings
of a compass
Grid reference
A grid system is a pattern of horizontal and vertical lines
forming squares of uniform sizes drawn on a map. Grid system is numbered East
and North and is referred in terms of Easting and Northing.
Grid lines
are not lines of latitude and longitude, but are drawn to a definite distance
apart, which varies according to the scale of the map and unit of measurement
used in a map. The reading in a grid system is referred to as grid reference
and is given in a six-figure number.
Using grid reference
a. The
full grid reference is given in a six-figure number.
b. Easting
– the eastward direction or reading are always given first.
c.
Northing – the northward direction or reading follows after the
Easting.Example Easting = 351 Northing = 421 Full grid reference = 351421
d. When a
place or point falls on the main gridlines or bisected by the grid line, add 0
to each reading Example A place is bisected by:- Easting =35 Northing = 40 The
grid reference of a point will be 350400
e.
When a place or point falls in the middle of a grid square, the
grid square is sub-divided into ten equal squares or tenths. The grid reading
or direction is given to the nearest tenths. Consider the point, A, in the
figure below). Example See point B in the figure below. The point lies between
the following grid reference: Easting = 35 Northing = 42
Procedures
1. Divide
the grid square into tenth to locate the point or place. For example, point A
in the figure below lies at:- Easting = 5 tenths Northing = 5 tenths
2. Read
the easting adding the 5 tenth digit = 565
3. Read
the nothing adding the 5 tenth digit =225
4. Full
grid reference of the point is 565225
Direction and Bearing of Object on Maps
Find
direction and bearing of object on maps
The
bearing of a lace on a map can be found when the north is given. The North is
usually an arrow sign pointing to the north.
Example 5
Find the bearing of point B from point A.
Procedures
1. Join
points B and A with a straight line.
2. At
point A, draw a line parallel to the north-south line.
3. Using a
protractor, measure the angle B from the north towards line BA as shown below.
Direction
of a place
The
direction of a place or point is its direction with respect to another point
measured by using the points of the compass e.g. North, South, East and West.
Example 6
Find the direction of point B from point A.
Procedures
1. Join
points A and B with a straight line.
2. At
point A, draw a line parallel to the north-south line or compass direction sign
that is given on a map.
3. Draw a horizontal
line at point A to get the East and West of the four points of the compass.
4. Find
the direction of point B from A to the nearest point of the compass. The four,
eight or sixteen points of a compass may be used.
When
finding angular bearing or direction of a compass, always use the “True North”
which is given on the map.
Uses of Maps
Different Uses of Maps
Describe
different uses of maps
Maps
are important tools to a geographer. They are the crucial means of reading and
communicating information about the location and spatial characteristics of the
natural world.
Maps are not only important to geographers. They are used
throughout the world by scientists, scholars, governments and the general
public to meet environmental, economic, political and social needs. The
following are some of the uses of maps:
1. Maps
are important tools to geographers. They help geographers understand, in a
visual way, important things about the surface of the earth. For example, maps
help the geographers locate important features such as volcanoes; hilly and
mountainous areas; dense forests; etc.
2. Maps
are used to record and store information about the environment, the location of
natural resources, capital assets and people. This is because the features
change while map information does not change. As such, maps store information
for future reference.
3. Maps
allow us to convey information and findings that are difficult to express
verbally. Thus, the maps make the studying and understanding of geography
easier since they have pictorial characteristics
4. A map
shows the relationship between and among features for example, a map clearly
indicates the location of places, rivers, a network of roads, vegetation, etc.
5. Maps
enable us to study the distribution of geographical phenomena such as water
bodies, valleys, mountains, vegetation and other features. 6. Maps, especially
those drawn to grid systems, give the location or position of a place or
feature.
6. Maps
may be used for estimating travel costs between two or more places. This may be
done by estimating the distance to be covered (by using map scales) and then
multiplying the distance by the cost per kilometre or mile to obtain the total
travelling costs.
7. Climate
maps provide crucial information about the climates of different parts of the
world and how these climates influence daily human activities.