BIOLOGY FORM ONE

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGY

1. It helps a man to understand himself/herself better
2. Knowledge of biology enables human being to conserve the environment.
3. It helps man to evaluate environment uses us pollution, global warming and environmental degradations.
4. Biology help to understand cause, symptoms, method of transmission, prevention, and

Treatment of diseases this improve the standard of living.

5. It provides answer to fundamental questions.
6. It helps us to enter in careers such as medicine, agriculture, reproductive, health and genetic Engineering.
7. Biology helps us to appreciate nature.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOLOGY AND OTHER SUBJECT FIELD

Biology related to many other field of study such as agriculture, medicine, pharmacy such as veterinary, medicine and nutrition.

1. AGRICULTURE

Biology research finding on crops and livestock have led to improve agriculture production.

2. MEDICINE AND PHARMACY

Medicine is the study of prevention and treatment and cure of disease.

3. NUTRITION

Biology is used by dieticians to determine the kind of diets suitable for people with different health problems.

4. FORESTRY

Biologists have developed varieties of trees that grow well in dry areas, also that mature fast so as to prevent desertification.

                          CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Living things have characteristics which make them different from non- living thing. These are;

1. NUTRITION/ FEEDING

All living things take in food or make their own food. Food enables living things to grow, develop and carry out on life process.

2. RESPIRATION

Respiration is a process by which food substances are broken down to produce useful energy in a cell.

     3.  EXCRETION

Is the process by which excess waste or harmful material resulting from the chemical reaction occur in body cell are removed out of body.

4. SENSITIVITY/ IRRITABILITY

It is the ability of an organism to detect and respond to a change in its environment

5. GROWTH

Growth is an increase in size and mass organism become more complicated and more efficient.

     6.  MOVEMENT/ LOCOMOTION

Is an action of changing position, movement with involve the whole body is called locomotion. E.g. Animals but plants just show movement in term of growth of their body parts. E.g. roots, shoots.

7. REPRODUCTION

Is the process of living things give rise to new individuals of their own kinds. This insures that this is continued existence of the specie’s and life forms.

NOTE:

Non- Living things are referred to us inanimate

Living things are referred to as animate

 SCIENTIFIC PROCESS IN BIOLOGY

Biology is a practical science that involves carrying out experiment, observation, measuring and experimentation are skills that we need when studying Biology, and we use our sense organs to make observation.

These organs are;

1. The eyes for seeing
2. The nose for smelling
3. The ears for hearing
4. The tongue for tasting
5. The skin for feeling

Scientific measurements are taken using specific instrument and units.

                               Some basic biological measures are

MEASURE	INSTRUMENT	SI UNIT
Mass	Beam balance	Kilogram (kg)
Time	Watch	Second (s)
Length	Ruler, Temperature	Meter (m)
Temperature	Thermometer	Kelvin (K) - Degrees Celsius                  -Degree Fahrenheit

In biological investigation like in any other scientific research, methods are listed. The scientific method is a set of step that scientist use to study things.

Those methods are

1. Problem identification

2. Formulation of hypothesis

3. Experimentation

4. Observation and data collection

5. Interpretation of data.

6. Data analysis

7. Conclusion 

Problem identification

In day today life one time comes across question which require explanation or problem which need solution or something to prove e.g. it is observed that buffaloes in Serengeti park are dying at great rate what would be the cause of death or there is poor harvesting or Earth warms are mostly found in the soil wells handed are as why?

                               

 Formulation of hypothesis

A hypothesis is a suggestion of the answer to the question asked. It is an intelligent guess that trees explain as an observation for example Earth worms prefer shaded areas because in the soil shaded there is more moist. A hypothesis can’t be termed as a biological acceptable explain action. Therefore experiment should be designed prove or disapproved if hypothesis is correct we say it is accepted, if disapproved we say rejected

Experimentation

An experiment is a test that is carried out under controlled conditions to determine whether a hypothesis is correct or not in any experiment. There is control experiment and experiment test. Example of experiment; Earth worms prefer moist or dry condition

Observation and data collection

The scientist they observe what happens from the time the experiment is set up to the time it ends. It is important to note all the changes made from the beginning to the end of the experiment and recording

Interpretation of data

Conclusion

A conclusion is a statement that summaries what a scientist has learnt from an experiment when scientist read conclusion. They taste whether the data or information collected support the hypothesis (accepted) or not support the hypothesis (reject) if so another hypothesis must be formulated and repeat the whole experiments

                                

BIOLOGY LABORATORY

A laboratory is a special room designed for caring out scientific experiment. A biology laboratory is special designed for caring out biological experiment. A laboratory should adequate space for caring out experiment, proper righting, good ventilation, source of water, means of heating and adequate space for storing apparatus, chemical and specimens. 

LABORATORY RULES

In biology laboratory we use hazardous chemical, fragile equipment or dangerous specimens. For this reason, it’s important to follow a certain rules and regulation for our safety and safety for other.

         These rules are;

1. Do not go into the laboratory in the absence of a teacher or laboratory technician.
2. Do not handle or use apparatus, chemical or specimens in the absence of a teacher.
3. Do not taste/ eat substances during experiment
4. Known the location of all exists
5. Do not leave experiment unattended
6. Turn of gas and water taps when not in use
7. Do not burners or hot substances towards other people in the laboratory
8. Do not take laboratory equipment, chemicals or specimen out of the laboratory
9. Do not play or run in the laboratory
10. Read the labels or containers before using the contents. Do not interchange label.
11. Dispose of all waste materials after all experiment.
12. After each experiment clean all the equipment you have used
13. Avoid touching yourself while performing experiment, clean your hands with soap and water after Experiment.
14. Do not touch electrical equipment with wet hands.
15. If you don’t understand something ask your teacher.
16. Known the location and operation procedure of all safety equipment e.g. First aid and fire extinguishers.
17. Dress properly for laboratory activities tie back long hair. Do not wear dangling Jewelers, Sandals. Shoe must cover leg completely.
18. Report all accident immediately to your teacher or technician
19. Never use dirty, chipped or cracked equipment.
20. Handle live spacemen carefully. if an animal’s bites insect’s stings you report the accident to your teacher

                 Distinguishing the biology laboratory from other facilities

The biology laboratory is different from other school facilities such as classroom, library or physics and chemistry laboratory.

A class room has desk and chairs, students are taught in a class room.

A library has variety of reading materials some library have tables and chairs where we can sit and reading.

A biology laboratory has models, specimens, cage, aquaria and chart which may not be in physics or chemistry laboratory.

Some of unique things found in biological laboratory are preserved specimens of organism such as insect, micro organism and plants.

                           

WARNING SIGNS/ SAFETY SYMBOLS

These are warning signs that are found on apparatus and chemical containers on the laboratory. Some may be found in or on the boxes used to hold either chemical or apparatus. These signs must be obeyed in order to ensure safety in the laboratory before one uses a chemical, one should know whether that chemical is Toxic, Corrosive, Flammable, Oxidant, Explosive, Harmful or Irritant.

TOXIC

Toxic substances are dangerous and may causes death are poisonous, cause death immediately or after a few days when handling toxic substances one should be very careful. In case a chemical gets into contact with the skin it should be washed out with a lot of water.

      

CORROSIVE

Corrosive substances can burn one’s skin. They can cause blindness in case they can into contact with the eyes. Example Of corrosive are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and concentrated alcoholic e.g. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide.



FLAMMABLE
These are substances which can catch fire easily. The substances should never be brought near open flammable

OXIDANT

These are chemical that can accelerate burning in the presence of an oxidizing agent small fires can be made bigger. Example in the heating of potassium permanganate mixed with saw dust

          

Explosive

An explosion is a forceful rapid reaction, which involves throwing off of particles at high speed chemicals carrying the sign of explosive may cause explosion if not handled carefully and according to the instruction.

                          

HARMFUL/IRRITANT

These are chemicals which can make you sick but it does not kill you, it can cause illness. This substance may not kill immediately, but may have effects after long exposure.

BIOLOGY APPARATUS

Biology apparatus are the tools and equipment needed in order to study Biology effectively.                                                       

APPARATUS		USES
	Hand lens	Used to magnify specimen/object.
	Sweep nets	Used to catch small flying organism. E.g. Butter fishes, house flying
	Fishing nets	For catching fish and aquatic animals
	Petri-dish	Is a shallow glass where specimen are put for close observation
	Mortar and pestle	Is small hard bowl used to crashing or gridding substances
	Crucible	Is a container in which substances are heated to very high temperature
	Thermometer	Used to measure temperature
	Dissecting Kit	Is a kit container all tools for making dissection of specimen
	Spirit – burner Bunsen – burner	Used as a source of heat
10.	Dropper	Used to add liquid during experiment
11.	Spatula	Used for taking some substance from the container
12.	Test tube holder	Used to hold test tube
13.	Test tube	Used to hold chemicals
14.	Test tube rack	Storing test tube
15.	White tiles	Used to put specimen during experiment that involve colour changes
16.	Watch glass	Is a shallow dish that used as evaporating surface or cover for beaker

                                                     THE MICROSCOPE      

The microscope is an instrument used to magnify very small specimen so as can be seen.

                                   THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF MICROSCOPE

1)      Light microscope

2)      Electron microscope

Light microscope can magnify object up to 2000 times. This is the type of microscope that is commonly used in school laboratory.

Election microscope that is can magnify a specimen up to 50000 times.

PART OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND THEIR FUNCTION

1)	Eye piece	Has a lens which magnify specimen
2)	Body tube	Support the objective revolving nose piece
3)	Rotating nose piece	Support the objective lens
4)	Objective lens	Magnify the specimen under observation have three objective lens lower power, medium power, high power
5)	Course adjustment knob	Raises or lowers the body tube in order to bring the image into focus
6)	Arm	Support the body tube, knobs, stage diaphragm and mirror. It’s one of the parts is held when moving the microscope
7)	Fine adjustment	Raises or lowers the body tube in order to bring the image in to sharp focus
8)	Ocular tube	The tube allow light to pass straight from the objective lens to the eye piece lens

THE STRUCTURE OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE


 

How to use light Microscope

1. Place the microscopes on the laboratory bench or table make sure it’s not near the edge.
2. Mount the specimen on a microscope slide cover it with the cover ship.
3. Make sure that the low power objective is on line with the eye piece lens.
4. Place the slide with the specimen on the stage.
5. While looking through the eyepiece, use your hand to adjust the stage so the light is directed at the specimen on the stage.
6. Adjust the course adjustment knob to bring the specimen focus.
7. Adjust the fine adjustment knob to bring the specimen into sharp focus.
8. Rotate the nosepiece to a lighter power objective lens if you want to observe more details on the specimen.

         How to care for light Microscope

1. Turn the adjustment knobs slowly, always start with course adjustment knob.
2. Always lift microscope using both hands, one hand holding the arm and other holding the base.
3. When not in use cover the microscope with clean cloth and store it in a dry, dust free space
4. Clean dirty lenses using lens tissue or soft cloth.
5. Don’t place the microscope at the edge of the table or bench as it could be knocked over.
6. When not in use for a long time remove the lenses and put them in desiccators.
7. Don’t touch the microscope with wet hands
8. Don’t touch the surface of the mirror of the lens with your fingers.
9. Lubricate moving parts regular
10. Always use a cover ship in order to protect the lens of the microscope from the substances in the specimen.
11. Remove the slides from the stage immediately after use.

FIRST AID AND SAFETY

First aid is an immediate assistance care given to a sick or injured person before getting professional medical help.

IMPORTANCE OF FIRST AID

• It helps to save life
• It help to prevents the victim’s condition from become worse
• It also promote recovery
• It help reduce pain and suffering
• It help to reassures the victim 

THE FIRST AID KIT

The first aid kit is the small box which contains item that is for providing first aid. This box should be clearly labeled “first aid” and stored in a safe and easily accessible place for instance on a shelf on the wall in a laboratory or in a staff room.

                      

  COMPONENTS OF FIRST AID AND THEIR USES

SN	ITEM	USE
1	Plaster or adhesive bandage	Covering small wounds
2	Sterile gauze	Covering wounds to protect them for dirty and germs
3	Antiseptic	Cleaning wounds to kill germs
4	Soap	Washing hands/ wounds and equipment
5	pain killers	Relieving pain Note: they should be placed regularly
6	scissor and razor blade	Cutting dressing materials
70	safety pins	Securing bandage
8	Bandages	Keeping dressing in place and immobilizing injured limbs
9	cotton wool	Cleaning and drying wounds
10	Thermometer	Taking body temperature
11	Disposable sterile gloves	Preventing direct contact with victim’s body fluids
12	petroleum jelly	Smoothing and chapped skin
13	Torch	As a source of light
14	Whistle	Blown to call for help
15	Splints	To kill germ in wound

EXERCISE

WRITE TRUE OR FALSE

1. You should induce vomiting, if a person has swallowed kerosene TRUE.
2. First aid helps to rescue the victim TRUE.
3. You should remove bee stings, using a needle FALSE.
4. Before taking a snake bite victim to hospital you must first capture the snake TRUE.
5. It is important to reduce the rate at which poison spread in the body TRUE.
6. You should move a victim of electric shock using a metal object FALSE.
7. A person who is nose bleeding should lie down TRUE.
8. We can use clean water, salt and sugar to make a rehydration drink for person who has vomited TRUE.                          

The following are First Aid procedure that can help people in various situations;

Bee sting

Treatment

When a person is stung by a bee sting remains on the skin.

Remove the sting by scraping gently using a blunt object such as a plastic card

• Do not use your fingers or sharp object because this make Bee sting to release more venom into the body.
• Wash the sting area with soap and water.
• Apply baking soda paste or salt water on the bee sting.
• The sting acidic baking soda/salt is base and it neutralizes the acid.
• Apply a cold compress to relieve pain and swelling 

Note:

If a victim develops allergic reaction, take the person to hospital immediately. 

Electric shock

This is a sudden painful feeling that somebody gets when electricity passes through the body. Electric shock is caused by touching or stepping an exposed to naked electricity live cable

Treatment

Remove the patient from the source of the dangerous.

1. Switching off the electricity current
2. Protecting yourself with a dry insulation materials such as rubber gloves or wrap your hand in dry clothing
3. Loosen any light clothing around the neck, chest and waist
4. Start artificial respiration immediately if the victim is unconscious
5. Take the patient to the hospital immediately 

Shock

This is the sudden violent disturbance of the mind or emotions.

Causes of Shock

• Bad news
• A frightening traumatic scene
• Severe illness
• Dehydration
• Severe allergic reaction
• Heavy bleeding inside the body

Treatment

1. Have the person lie down with his feet higher than his head. However if he has a severe head injury put him a half sitting position.
2. Stop any bleeding
3. If the person feels cold, cover him with a blanket.
4. If he conscious and able to drink, give him sips of water or other soft drinks.
5. Keep calm and rescue the person

Note:

If the person is a conscious, lay he/she on his side with head low lifted back and to one side. If they seem to be shocked pull his tongue forward with your finger. Do not give him anything by the mouth until become conscious.

Wounds

Treatment

1. First wash your hand with soap and water, then wash the abrasion gently and dry it
2. Rub some gentian violet solution (GV) to keep it clean and dry more quickly
3. When cleaning the wound be careful to clean all the dirty lift up and clean under any flaps of skin
4. After the wound has been cleaned, place a piece of clean gauze or cloth over the top

Bleeding

a) Nose bleeding

     Nose bleeding may occur as a result of

1. Blowing the nose too hard as a result of dried mucus
2. A punch direct to the nose from another person
3. High blood pressure
4. Air pressure changes

Treatment

• Sit quietly
• Blow the nose firmly for 10 minutes or until bleed stop it advisable to breathe through mouth.
• If this does control bleeding pack the nostril a wrap of cotton. Leaving part of outside the nose it possible. First wet the cotton with hydrogen. 

Vomiting

To vomit is to remove food from the stomach through the mouth. It can be caused by food poisoning, contaminated water, fever or excessive eating.

Treatment

The person should get adequate rest. Give lost of fluids make a rehydration drink by mixing 1 liter of clean water, 1.5 spoons of salt and 4to 5 spoon of sugar.

Muscle cramps and sprains

1. Sprains

It’s possible to know whether a hand or foot is bruised, sprained or broken, it helps to have an x- ray. To release pain and swelling, keep the sprained part raised high. Put the ice, wrapped in a cloth or plastic bag or cold wet cloth over the swollen joint for 20 to 30 minutes. Once even hour (when the swelling is no longer getting worse, soak the sprain in hot water several times a day.

Muscle cramp

         Muscle cramp is sudden, involuntary and painful contractions of a single muscle or group of muscle. The cause of muscle cramps include

1. Poor coordination of the muscle during exercise
2. Cold
3. Excessive loss of salt and body fluids due to too much sweating, severe diarrhea or persistent vomiting

Treatment foot muscle cramps

• Help the victim to stand
• When the first contraction is over, left the victim to sit down.
• Straight on the victim knee and draw his or her foot firmly and steadily upward towards the shin
• Massage the muscle
• Get the medical help if the cramps do not stop

 POISNING

A poisoning is any substance that causes harm if it swelled inhale or absorbed into the body. If the poison has been breathed in move the person outside where there is plenty of fresh air, if the victim is not breathing start mouth to move resuscitation.

If the person has been swallowed give a glass of milk or water or both. This help to dilute and neutralize the poison, don’t introduce vomiting if the poison is a corrosive. Introduce vomiting if the poison is none corrosive substances. Vomiting can be induced by putting your finger in the victim’s throat or by making the victims gargle soap water or raw egg yolk, take the person to hospital immediately.

SAFETY AT HOME AND SCHOOL

Many accidents occur in our schools as well as at home, children handicapped are more to get accidents. The common accident at home and school including drowning poisoning, choking, cuts and scratches, falls, bites and electric shock.

                                 Common accidents and how to prevent them

Accident	Preventing and safety and how to prevent them
Fire burns and scalds	Switch off Bunsen burners and cookers which not in use
Drowning	-          Don’t go swimming alone -          Use a bridge when crossing rivers and streams -          Avoid going near water bodies when its dark -          Don’t allow children to play near the water bodies -          Cover or fence all pools of water in the home or school
Falls	-          always walk careful -          avoid playing dangerous games like climbing trees and walls -          put up signs to indicate where there stairs or steps -          do not run unnecessarily -          wipe spilled liquids on the floor immediately -          do not leave fruits and vegetable peels on the floor
Poisoning	-          label all containers clearly -          store all poisonous substances in a safe lockable place when not in            use
Choking	-          do not talk while eating -          sit up right when eating or drinking -          eat slowly and do not take part in eating competition -          do not give children small objects to play with as they could put                  them in the mouth
Bites and stings	-          don’t irritate animals -          stay away from bee lives and wasp net -          cut bushes and fall grasses that could has dangerous animals
Cuts and stretches	-          store sharp tools in the safe place -          property dispose of broken glass and empty tins -          do not walk bare foot outside -          do not plant thorny bushes very near -          do not give children sharp object play with
Electric shock	-          switch off electrical appliance that are being used -          do not touch electrical equipments with your hands -          ensure all electrical appliances are properly installed -          do not push sharp object in to electric switch

 WASTE DISPOSAL

Waste: Refers to materials which are not needed.

Waste disposal: is way in which get rid of waste materials

TYPES OF WASTE

We can classify waste according to its state

1. Solid waste
2. Liquid waste
3. Gaseous waste
4. Sludge waste

Solid waste

Is a hard waste material e.g. House hold, garbage, mining waste, plastic, paper, glass, scrap metal, waste, tires empty cans and construction waste.

Liquid waste

Liquid waste include urine, water from bathrooms, water from kitchen after washing utensils, liquid also come from industries e.g. chemical liquid waste.

Gaseous waste

This is waste in gaseous form for example ammonia, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide gases from materials and lead from petrol in motor vehicle. Gaseous waste is a major risk factor for both acute and chronic respiratory disease.

Sludge waste

This is a thick soft and wet waste material usually a viscous material (flowing material) e.g. human waste, industrial waste which contain between 30⁰/₀ to 70⁰/₀ water. Waste from living thing is biodegradable. They can be decomposed by bacterial and other living organism. E.g. food remain, paper and cotton clothes waste material such as plastics, glass, metal are biodegradable.

Waste disposal

Waste disposal refers to collection, transportation, processing re-use and other activities that help us to get rid of waste. This helps to reduce adverse effects of waste on human health, animal’s health and environment.

Basic principle of waste disposal

The principles can help us to better manage our waste, these are:

1. Reducing amount of waste we produce, for example we do not have to buy plastic bags each time we go shop we can carry a woven basket instead.
2. Re- using items instead of throwing them a way for instead we can use an empty margarine container to store sugar.
3. Recycling waste materials – some waste can be changed to other product for example, broken glass can be melt and use to make new glass bottles.

                                         Important of waste disposal

1. It helps to provide pleasing environment
2. It eliminates or reduces bad airs
3. It minimizes the spread of infections and disease
4. To prevent accident

Methods of waste disposal

         1. Burning

Waste such as papers, plastic, carton – boxes, empty milk packet, bread wrappers,     other are burnt to ashes.

        

        2. Burying

This is used to dispose in organic refuse such as empty containers of insecticides, used torch batteries, broken bottles, pots, plates, cups and spoon.

Burying can take the following form

-a.Pit latrine

The sewage in pit is decayed by bacteria, when the pit is full it’s covered by with soil and a new latrine is dug

-b.Tipping and landfills

When car [truck] come and collect waste and take it to dumping site we called it tipping

Damping can be in form of a dump or landfill.

A landfill is place where solid waste buried in the ground.

         3. Animals feeds

Organic refuse such as vegetable, fruit, potato and banana, peelings, cabbage, and   spinach leaves are feed to goats, sheep, cattle, poultry and also pigs. Bones are dried and ground into powder which is dog food.

        

   

   4. Compost manure

After separating inorganic refuse from organic. A place of one meter deep is dug where the organic refuse is dumped to decompose, to keep away flies reduce smell and other health hazards, a thin layer of wood ashes and sock is used to cover the refuse. After the refuse decomposes, it’s used by farmer as compost manure which adds soil fertile.
 
         5.Recycling

To recycle to turn waste material into useful that can be used again. Plastic, glass, paper, metal and rubber item can be recycle for example paper can be converted to tissue paper or news print paper, worm out tires can be retreated and re- used, plastic items old glass bottles can crushed and made into new bottles.   

6. Incinerating

To incinerate is to burn something until it completely destroyed. This process is carried out in an incinerator. Incinerator is usually done for hazardous material such as clinical waste.

        

 7. Garbage collection

Garbage collection in urban areas is done by local authorities, local authorities provide refuse bins which a commonly paced at strategic places in towns. Garbage disposal are through landfill and incineration.

THE EFFECTS OF POOR WASTE DISPOSAL

1. Kill aquatic organism (animals found in water) e.g. empty container after rain become breeding places e.g. mosquito, cockroaches.
2. Poor waste disposal causes air pollution result to respiratory disease.
3. Can causes accident in home e.g. fresh peeling of fruits and vegetable, and potatoes on the floor can cause slivering and falls down breaking his/her leg broken glass can cut people.
4. Organic waste when decomposing cause bad smell.
5. Causes epidemic diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
6. Can harm wildlife and domestic animals. E.g. when cow eat plastic, bags, suffocate or block the digestive system and cause death.
7. Block drainage system can cause flooding
8. Degrade the natural beauty of the environment.
9. Can cause Gene mutation.

                                         How to reduce waste product

1. Use cloth instead of paper to wipe surface e.g. window and furniture. It’s must cheaper in the long run and reduces the amount of waste paper in the environment.
2. Invest in a set of cloth or woven shopping bags.
3. Buy rechargeable batteries and a battery charger instead of disposable batteries.
4. Collect and use plastic container to store food.
5. Initiate awareness campaigns in your community on the proper ways of disposing waste.
6. Use plastic that can be recycled or re – used and buy products made from recycled materials
               

                             Symbol of recycled material

Why waste product is a problem

• Peoples bad habits for example dumping waste on foot paths, on the roadside and using excessive packaging for example wrapping a piece of candy to layers of plastic.
• In adequate disposal facilities make waste disposal a problem.
• Failure by the local authorities to enforce effects punishment on those who failed to proper waste disposal.
• Poor infrastructure/ poor settlement planning render waste collection.                          

Why increase of waste output now today?

• Increase of population and new settlement.
• Increased consumption rate more disposable packaging and foot waste.
• Technical advancement cause nuclear waste.

THE CONCEPT OF HEATH AND IMMUNITY

The concept of Health

Word Health Organization (WHO)  defined health as a complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, not merely absence of disease.

OR

Is astate of a person to be free from diseases physically and mentally without any social disturbances,

Factors affecting health of an organism

Any disturbances in physical, social and life aspects of life may result in to ill health. The following are the factors affecting health of an organism

i.        Nutrition- unbalanced diet, deficiency of food may result in to disease

ii.      Education- good health is achieved through a proper knowledge

iii.    Economic factor- lower living standard as aresult to low social economic status predisposes a person to different disease.

iv.    Cleanliness and hygiene- both improve healthy standard.

v.      Exercise- physical exercises bring about physical, mental and social wellbeing.

vi.    Alcoholism, smoking and drug abuse- these result in to ill health.

vii.  Accessibility to health centre- this promotes health.

viii.Sexual dysfunction- this may lead to mental disturbances and hence ill health.

ix.     Stress factor- stress at working places, home, or relative may lead to ill health.

The concept of immunity

Immunity is the ability of the body to resist against infection.

OR

Is the ability of the body to defend itself against disease.

TYPES OF IMMUNITY

1.      Natural immunity

2.      Artificial immunity

1.      NATURAL IMMUNITY

Is the immunity that presents at the time of birth i.e. the one that a person born with. It is present before exposure of the body to an infectious agent. It is also called innate or in born immunity.

Natural immunity can be categorized in to two types

i.    Passive natural immunity

is an immunity in which antibodies are transferred from mother to foetus through the placenta during pregnancy. The first milk (colostrum) also contain antibodies which confer passive natural immunity to the child. This type of immunity lasts for short period of time.

ii.      Active natural immunity

This is the kind of immunity in which body is able to produce its antibodies against disease after attack by the disease agent; it is developed as a result of the body being exposed pathogens or their toxins. It is mediated through memory cells capable of recognizing certain disease-causing factor called antigens in pathogen hence producing antibodies against it. E.g. if a person catches measles the body develops antibody against measles.

2.  ACQUIRED/ ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY

Is the immunity acquired after birth, it is also called induced or artificial immunity. There are two types of artificial immunity

i.  Passive acquired immunity

Is the type of immunity in which antibodies are produced in one organism and transfer to another organism for protection against disease example to protect against tetanus, tetanus virus is introduces to another animal like sheep,horse etc and antibodies develop in animal’s blood and antibodies are extracted and then injected in to human to provide passive immunity against tetanus. This immunity is short lived but able to avert dearth.

ii.    Active acquired immunity

This is the type of immunity in which a modified antigen is introduced in to the body. The antigen will stimulate the body to make antibodies against it. The antigen introduced is called a vaccine, the process is called vaccination. Active acquired immunity lasts and protects animal for a long time.

NB

Vaccination

This is the process of injecting vaccine in to the body to produce immunity to  a disease. Vaccine is the special antigen that can be used to stimulate the development of antibodies and thus confer active immunity against specific disease or number of diseases.

VACCINATION OF SIX MAJOR DISEASE

In the year 1984, World Health Organization (WHO), established a programme to control six diseases. These diseases are Measles, Pertusis (whooping cough), tetanus, polio, Tuberculosis (TB) and Diphtheria. This programme prevented more than one million deaths annually between 1974 and 1984. The following are the most important vaccines used to control these disease:

1.    DPT vaccine – combined vaccine against Diphtheria, Pertusis and tetanus organism. It is given as a course of three doses in the first year of life at two or three or four months of age.

2.    BCG vaccine – this is the vaccine againsa Tuberculosis, it was discovered by two French Biologist Calmette and Guerine. BCG is abbreviation for BaccilleCalmette-Guerine. It is given as a single injection at right shoulder at birth or afterwards not after 14 days.

3.    Polio vaccine – Given as drops each month in first three months, the mother should not breath feed for two hours after polio drops.

4.    Measles vaccine – it is not usually given to a child less than 9 months of age.

NOTE

Some other disease that vaccinated are cholera, typhoid fever, typhus, yellow fever, rubella (mumps), small pox, common cold and influenza. There is also a need a vaccine for disease like malaria, sleeping sickness, dengue fever, worm infections, leprosy, HIV and others.

Differences between passive immunity and active immunity

Passive immunity	Active immunity
i.                    antibodies are introduced from ather organism.	Achieved by injecting the antigen
ii.                  bodydoesnot form its own antibodies.	Body makes its own antibodies.
iii.                immunity is short lived.	Immunity is long lasting.

Natural defense against diseases

There are various natural barriers, which defend our bodies against infections by preventing entry of foreign bodies in our bodies. These barriers makes first line of defense, these includes

1.      The skin – outer part of the skin is made up of dead layers of cells known as cornified layer, which prevent entry of pathogens in to the body. Skin produce sweat and sebum acts as antiseptic against pathogens.

2.      Mucous membrane – the mucous glands in the membrane secretes mucous which traps any pathogens and discharge them out of the body.

3.      Ciliated membrane – respiratory membrane are equipped with cilia, which traps pathogens and foreign body inhaled with air.

4.      Acids in the bacteria and vagina – the acids provides unfavorable condition for bacteria growthhence preventing new growth of bacteria, the acids also kills foreign organism entering stomach or vagina

5.      Tears – are produced by tear glands or lacrimal glands in the eye, can kill foreign organism entering the body through the eyes.

Factors that affects body immunity

1.      Age: immunity is low in old people and very young people

2.      Disease: e.g. leukemia and AIDS lowers body immunity.

3.      Some drugs e.g. steroids lowers body immunity

4.      Lack of proper balanced diet lowers body immunity

5.      Exposure body to X-rays

INFECTIONS AND DISEASES

Meaning of infections  

Is a state of a body being attacked by a disease causing microorganism such as bacteria and viruses. A disease-causing microorganism is known as pathogen.

Meaning of disease

A disease can be defined as a disturbed state of body or mind.

OR

Is any abnormality or failure of a body or mind to function properly.

OR

Can be defined as the deviation from normal health.

OR

Is a condition of the body where the normal body functioning is interfered with.

Classification of disease

Disease can be categorized in to two basic groups

1.      Congenital disease

These diseases present at the time of birth. They are permanent, generally not curable and may be inherited to the children.

2.      Acquired disease

These are diseases that developafter birth of an organism during ones life. There are two types of acquired disease, namely:

Ø Communicable (infectious) disease.

Ø Non-communicable disease.

Non-communicable disease

These are disease confined to a person and not spread to fro one to person to another through contact. They are not infectious diseases. Examples are cancer, asthma, kwashiorkor, sickle cell, anemia, diabetes, etc.

Communicable or infectious disease

These are organism that can be transmitted from one person to another. These disease spread to many people in the society if there are some who are suffering from the disease. The transmitting organism are called vectors, these includes viral disease, bacterial disease, fungal disease, protozoan disease and worm disease. Example of communicable disease includes cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis (TB), malaria, amoebic dysentery, gonorrhea, syphilis, flu, HIV and AIDS.

Categories/types of communicable disease

Epidermicdisese

Epidermic disease is a communicable disease that affects a large number of people in a short period of time in a particular place. Example cholera, meningitis, measles, flu and plague.

Endemic disease

Endemic disease is a communicable disease which occur in an area continuously. Example malaria, bilharzias, gonorrhea and syphilis.

Pandemic disease

Pandemic disease is a communicable disease that become widespread over a country, continent or worldwide. Example malaria in tropical region and HIV/AIDS in the world.

Sporadic disease

Sporadic disease is a disease that occur only occasionally or in a few isolated places. Example bilharzia in Kondoa.

Chronic disease

A chronic disease is a disease that takes a long time to heal and involve a slow change, this does not imply the severity of a disease. Example leprosy.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN COMMUNICABLE DISEASE

Aetiology – refers to the study of the cause of disease.

Pathogens (causative agent) – refers to an organism which cause a disease eg bacteria, virus, fungus etc

Vector – refers to an organism which carries a disease agent from one person to another or from infected animal to human e.g. female anopheles mosquito is a vector for malaria.

Incubation period – is a period of latency which begins from the time of infection and ends with the appearance of the first signs and symptoms of a disease e.g. incubation period for malaria is 4-8 days

Carrier –refers to a person who has been infected but develops no signs or symptoms e.g. HIV carrier.

Signs – refers to what can be seen to the patients during examination during examination. Or are visible expressions of the disease e.g. paleness of the body, rashes etc.

Symptoms – refers to what the patients feel and can only be described by the patients. E.g. nausea, headache, tiredness.

Prevention – are measured taken to prevent a person from getting a disease.

DISEASE CAUSING AGENTS

WAYS OF TRANSMITTING INFECTIOUS DISEASES

There are two main methods of transmission

Ø  Direct transmission

Ø  Indirect transmission

Direct transmission of infectious disease

In direct transmission there is a no  vector for transmission of a disease, the disease causing organism reaches and infect heath person direct without intermediate agent (vector).  Example

-Direct contact between a health person and infected person e.g. chicken pox, syphilis, gonorrhea, ring worm, leprosy etc

-  Direct bite with an animal contain disease causing organism e.g. rabies is transmitted through dog bite

-  Blood transfusion containing pathogen

-  Uterine transmission

Indirect transmission of infectious disease

The indirect transmission needs an intermediate agent to transmit a disease causing organism from infected person to health person.

- Vector borne disease – in this transmission, vector is a carrier of  disease causing agent. Eg female anopheles mosquito for malaria, house fly for cholera, tsetse fly for sleeping sickness etc.

-  Vehicle borne – transmitted to the mouth through contaminated food, water and other eaten substances eg cholera, dysentery etc.

-  Air borne – pathogen are spread by wind and dusts.

-Formite borne – is a kind of transimission in which a person gets infection by touching any article which has been in contact with disease agent eg. Towels, pants, toothbrush etc

COMMON HUMAN DISEASES

·         Cholera

Causative agent: Caused by a bacterium known as Vibrio cholerae.

Transmission:

- Taking contaminated food and water contaminated with feaces from infected person.

-Vectors e.g. flies moving from infected human feaces to food.

Signs and symptoms

- Severe, watery diarrhea passed almost continuously.

- Whitish stool like rice-water, no abdominal pain.

- General body weakness

- Rapid loss of weight

-Wrinkled skin, sunken eyes and cheek due to dehydration

- Skin pinch goes back very slowly.

- Urine is hardly passed or no urine at all.

- Vomiting after or before diarrhea, this may cause death.

Prevention

- Hygienic waste disposal

- Preparing and store food in clean places.

- Keeping water supply clean and safe.

- Washing hands thoroughly with soap and water after toilets

- Boil a drinking water

-Vaccination is also available

- Avoid overcrowded areas or burial places during epidermis

Treatments

- In its early stage the disease can be treated with tetracycline.

- In its late stage rehydration therapy is important treatment technique.

·         Meningitis

Is an inflammation of the membrane of brain called Meninges. Depending on its causative agent Meningitis classified in to

- Bacterial meningitis

- Viral meningitis

- Fungal meningitis

Bacterial meningitis

Causative agent – It is caused by Neisseria meningitides are most likely to cause epidemics of meningitis other cause includes Streptococcus pneumoniae

Transmission

Neisseria meningitides is transmitted by air borne droplets

Signs and symptoms

-High fever

- Headache

- Stiff neck

- Back pain

- Mental confusion

Control and prevention

-    Immunization/ vaccination

-    Avoid overcrowded places during epidemics

Treatment

Penicillin is a treatment of choice for Neisseria meningitis

·    Plague

Causative agent - Bacteria known as Yesinia pestis cause it.

Transmission

It is transmitted by vector called rat flea, the flea takes bacterium by biting infected  rodent. And the flea can then bite a human being hence transmitting bacterium to human being.

Signs and symptoms

- Painful, swollen lymph nodes near a flea bites

- High fever

Prevention/ control

- Controlling the spread of rats in urban areas

-Preventing rats from entering the country either by ships or airplanes.

- Avoiding contact with dead rodents

- Avoid flea bites

- Isolation of flea patience for 12 hours after antibiotic therapy is started.

- Reporting plague cases to the public health authorities is mandatory.

- Vaccination

Treatment

It is treated by Streptomycin or combination of Streptomycin and tetracycline

·         Schistosomiaisis (Bilharzias)

Causative agent:

Worms called schistosomes or blood fluke cause it. There are three types of schistosomes, namely

-    Schistosoma haematobium – attack human bladder, the patience passes blood terminal to urination. It is common in East Africa, Egypt and Asia.

-   Schistosoma mansoni – attack large intestine in man and baboons. It is common in Middle East and South Americans.

-    Schistosoma japonicum – attacks mainly the small intestine and other parts of alimentary Cana. It is common in china, japans and Philippines.

Transmission

This is the snail disease. Schistosoma eggs are passed with feaces and urine in to water. In water eggs are developed in to worms called miracidia (singular; miracidium), then miracidia finds a snail in which they grow to form cercariae, these cercariae leave a snail and swim in water until they find new person, they penetrate the body through skin or mucus membrane of mouth as one drink dirty contaminated water. Then blood carry these these cercaria to the pelvic veins where they develop in to adult schistosoma worms.

Signs and symptoms

-    Urine with terminal blood

-    Enlargement of liver and spleen

-    Accumulation of fluids in legs and abdomen (Oedema)

-    Mild skin itch

-    Paralysis due to damage of brain or spinal cord

Ø    General body weakness

Ø    Patience become anaemic

Prevention and treatment

Ø    Proper use of latrines

Ø    Vector control

Ø    Avoid bathing in standing water with snail

Ø    De-worming ( use of drugs to kill schistosoma in an infected person)

Ø    Drinking a boiled water

Ø    Provision of health education to the community

5.      Typhoid

Causative agents

It is caused by bacterium called salmonella typhi; they attack walls of intestine, spleen, bone marrow and gall bladder. The infected area of small intestine may develop ulcers

Transmission

Transmitted though drinking contaminated water and eating contaminated food, the vector for typhoid is housefly and it spread through faecal matter of an infected person. Incubation period is somewhat 1 – 3 months.

Signs and symptoms

Ø    Continuous fever for 2 – 3 weeks.

Ø    Slight abdominal pain or upsets.

Ø    Vomiting and diarrhea

Ø    Sore throat

Prevention

Ø    Proper community sanitation

Ø    Personal hygiene e.g. washing after visiting toilets with soap and clean water

Ø    Water sources and food should be protected against flies

Ø    Water for drinking should be boiled

Ø    Getting vaccination

6.      Malaria

Causative agent

This is caused by protozoon’s parasites known as plasmodium. There are four types of plasmodium, namely

Ø    Plasmodium malariae

Ø    Plasmodium ovale

Ø    Plasmodium vivax

Ø    Plasmodium falsiparum

Transmission

Malaria is transmitted by carrying plasmodium from blood of infected person to the new health person through female anopheles mosquito bites, occasionally can occur through blood transfusion.

Signs and symptoms

Ø    High fever which may continuous or recurring

Ø    Sweating in the late stage

Ø    Cold sensation despite the fact that temperature is high

Ø    General body weakness

Ø    Frontal headache

Ø    Loss of appetite

Ø    Joints pains

Ø    Some mental disturbances in severe cases

Ø    Vomiting and diarrhea may or may not be presents

Prevention

Ø    Use insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes

Ø    Drain mosquitoes breeding grounds

Ø    Cut down bushes around homes

Ø    Sleeping behind mosquitoes treated nets

Ø    Wearing a long sleeved shirts and trousers during nights

Ø    Smearing mosquito repellant cream

Ø    Introduce fish or tadpoles, frogs and toads, crustacea in water sources. These organism feed oneggs, lava and pupa of mosquitoes.

Treatment

The current treatment in Tanzania is drug of combination of artemether and lumefantrine (Alu), second line drug is quinine.

4.      Tuberculosis (TB)

Causative agents

It is caused by mycobacterium tuberculae. In the lung it cause pulmonary TB; in vertebral column it cause the TB of the spine etc

Transmission

It is transmitted from infected person to healthy person through respiratory aerosols when the patience actively sneezes or coughs. The disease is common in overcrowded economically poor society and low body immunity.

Signs and symptoms

Ø    Fever

Ø    General body weakness

Ø    Nights sweats

Ø    Weight loss

Ø    Failure to grow in children

Ø    Cough and haemoptysis (blood in sputum)

Ø    Chest pain

Prevention/treatment

Ø    Vaccination using BCG vaccine

Ø    Active treatment of identified cases

Ø    Taking balanced diet

Ø    Avoid overcrowded places

Ø    Better housing system

Ø    Taking pasteurized milk and cow product

Ø    Using masks to prevents spread to healthy workers.

5.      Leprosy

Causative agent

It is caused by bacterium called mycobacterium leprae.

Transmission

Transmitted by nasal discharge through sneezing and also through skin lesions.

It is acquired by prolonged contact with patients who discharge bacterium.

Signs and symptoms

Ø    Loss of sensation

Ø    Thickening and folding of the skin

Ø    Disfiguring of the parts of the body

Ø    Multiple raised nodes on the skin.

Prevention

Ø    There is no vaccine to prevent leprosy,

Ø    One need to avoid contact with a leprosy patience

Ø    Treating case is one of the preventive measures

Treatment – by antibiotics

6.      Tetanus

Causative agent

Caused by bacteria called Clostridium tetan

Transmission

Contact with bacteria in the soil the common entry is usually a wound site.

Signs and symptoms

Ø    Strongpainful muscles spasm  a condition known as tetany

Ø    Lock jaw

Ø    Rigid posture

Ø    Respiratory failure

Prevention

Prevented by immunization/ vaccination with tetanus toxoid

Treatment – antibiotics e.g. penicillin

7.      Measles

Causative agent

Measles virus

Transmission

Transmitted via respiratory droplets produced while coughing or sneezing.

Signs and symptoms

Ø    High fever

Ø    Rashes

Ø    Running nose

Ø    Coughing

Ø    Inflammation of the eye, a condition known as conjunctivitis.

Prevention

It is prevented by immunization or vaccination by measles vaccine. Usually given at 9 month of age.

Treatment – no treatment available.

8.      Rabies

Causative agent

Rabies are caused by rabies virus

Transmission

It is transmited through bite of an animal infected with rabies virus

Signs and symptoms

Ø    headache

Ø    vomiting

Ø    Fever

Ø    General body pain

Ø    Paralysis

Ø    Hydrophobia (tendency of hating water)

Prevention

Ø    Killing animal caring it

Ø    Immediate vaccination

9.      Poliomyelitis

Causative agent – it caused by polio virus

Transmission

It is transmitted from feaces by

Ø    Eating contaminated food

Ø    Drinking contaminated water

Signs and symptoms

Ø    headache

Ø    sorethroat

Ø    Nausea

Ø    Vomiting

Prevention – taking polio vaccine prevents poliomyelitis

Treatment – no treatment for poliomyelitis

10.  DYSENTRY

Causative agent

Can be caused by bacteria called Shigella and protozoan called Entamoeba histolytica

Mode of transmission

Transmittedby contaminated food and water

Signs and symptoms

Ø    Severe diarrhea

Ø    Profuse bleeding

Prevention

Ø    Improve sanitation

Ø    Boil drinking water

Ø    Rehydration drugs antibiotics

STI’s, STD’s, HIV AND AIDS

STI’s and STD’s

STI’s stands for Sexual Transmitted Infections.

STD’s stands for Sexual Transmitted Diseases

Mode of transmission

They are transmitted through sexual intercourse or other form of sexual contact

Categories of STI’s

i.                    Bacterial STI’s e.g. gonorrhea, syphilis, Chlamydia.

ii.                  Viral STI’s e.g. genital herpes, hepatitis b.

iii.                Fungal STI’s e.g. candidiasis

Common examples of STI’S and STD’s

1.  Syphilis

Causative agent

This is the bacterium disease caused by bacterium called Treponema pallidum,

Mode of transmission

It is transmitted through sexual intercoursebetween health and infected person. The foetus can also be infected in the uterus by passage of bacterium from the mother to the foetus through placenta

Signs and symptoms

Syphilis occur in three stages

Primary stage

This stage last for 3 – 4 weeks after infection, it is characterized by painless sore (chancre), which may appear or around the genitalia or in the anus.

Secondary stage

This stage lasts for 5 – 14 weeks after infection, it is characterized by

Ø  Rashes

Ø  Fever

Ø  Weight loss

Ø  Loss of appetite

Ø  Body weakness

Ø  Tender glands.

Ø  Mouth sore

Final stage

If syphilis not treated for long time it starts damaging the internal organs like heart and liver and it can lead to death

Long-term effects

Ø Infertility in men and women

Ø Ectopic pregnancies

Ø Still birth ( baby is born dead)

Ø Can results in birth defects.

Prevention

Ø Abstinence from sex

Ø Be faithful to your partner

Ø Condom use, avoid unprotected sexual intercourse

Ø Avoid contact with skin sores

Treatment – penicillin is effective in the treatment of all stages of syphilis

2.  Gonorrhea

Causative agent

it is caused by bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoea

Transmission

Ø  Transmitted through sexual intercourse

Ø  Newborn can be infected in the womb

Ø  Incubation period is 3- 5 days

Signs and symptoms

The symptoms develops in male usually and not in female

Ø  Burning sensation during urination

Ø  Discharge of pus like through urinary system

Ø  Can result in sterility and ectopic pregnancies in females

Ø  It affects the eyes of new born.

Ø  It brings about the menstrual change in women

Ø  Abdominal pain and swelling

Prevention

Ø Abstinence from sex

Ø Be faithful to your partner

Ø Condom use, avoid unprotected sexual intercourse

Ø Avoid contact with skin sores

Long-term effects

Ø  Infertility in men and women

Ø  Ectopicpregnancies in women

Ø  Cause heart problems

3.  Chlamydia

Causative agent

It is caused by bacterium called Chlamydia trachomatis, the bacterium is found in the body fluids such as vaginal fluids and semen.

Transmission

Ø It is transmitted through sexual intercourse

Ø Can also be transmitted to the new born through birth canal during delivery

Signs and symptoms

Ø  Painful urination

Ø  Vagina or penile discharge, usually colored and smelly.

Ø  Menstruation change in female

Ø  Painful testis

Prevention and treatment

Ø Abstinence from sex

Ø Be faithful to your partner

Ø Condom use, avoid unprotected sexual intercourse

Ø Antibiotics are effective.

Long-term effects

Ø Ectopic pregnancies in women.

Ø Joints pains in both sexes

Ø Infertility in men and women

4.  Genital herpes

Causative agent – caused by herpes simplex virus

Transmission – through sexual intercourse

Signs and symptoms

Ø Itchy sensation in the genital or anal canal.

Ø Headache,

Ø Fever

Ø Backache

Ø Appearance of small blisters around genitalia.

Ø Painful urination.

Prevention and treatment

Ø Avoid sexual intercourse

Ø Be faithful to your partner

Ø Can be treated by Acyclovir.

5.      Hepatitis B

Causative agent – is the virus called hepatitis B virus. it found in body fluid especially blood.

Transmission-it is transmitted through sexual intercourse

Signs and symptoms

Ø  Fevers,

Ø  Yellowing of skin (jaundice),

Ø  Loss of appetite,

Ø  Nausea,

Ø  Vomiting,

Ø  Fatigue

Ø  Tender abdomen.

Long term effects - damaged liver leading to lever cirrhosis or cancer of the liver.

Prevention - vaccine is available

Treatment - there is no treatment available

The most common effects of STDs

Ø  Sterility in both sexes,

Ø  Ectopic pregnancies in woman which may bright about their death,

Ø  Spontaneous abortion in women.

Ø  Still birth i.e. giving birth.

Ø  Premature birth

Ø  Foetal infections e.g. inection of eye wich may result in to blindnesss

Ø  Cervical cancer in women

Ø  Death is also associated with STDs.

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)

Causative agent

AIDs is caused by a virus know as   Human Immune Deficiency   Virus, [HIV]. The virus attacks immune system and weakens it so   that   it cannot defend   the body   from diseases. HIV is founds in most body’s fluids   such as vaginal fluids, semen and    blood. It is still   not well   known if     viruses are   founds    in fluids like saliva and tears, HIV attacks white   blood   cell   called   T-helper   cells. The    virus enters grow and multiply   in these   cell hence spreading to affect   other new    T-helper   cell. Since t-helper    cells   are important   component     of     cellular   body      immunity, the  immune     system  is    weakened.

Transmission

The following are methods through which HIv is transmitted:

Ø  Sexual intercourse between infected and non-infected person

Ø  Baby can be infected while still in the mother’s womb.

Ø  The baby is infected from an infected mother during delivery

Ø  Breast feeding can also infect the child

Ø  Transfusion of an infected blood

Ø  Sharing of sharp and un-sterilized tools e.g. razor blades, needles, knives and teeth brush

Note:

HIV is not transmitted from person to person through kissing, shaking hands, sneezing, coughing or sitting close to AIDS patient. it not transmitted through mosquito bites, bed burg bites or any other inter personal animal bites

Symptoms and signs

Ø  Loss of body weight of more than 10% of the total body weight{about 5kg} in a month

Ø  A form of skin cancer called kaposis sarcoma which starts anywhere on the skin surface showing a small painless spots

Ø  Lumps on skin surface.

Ø  Abnormal swelling of lymph nodes

Ø  Rashes on the skin,

Ø  in advanced stage,  the victims develops abdominal problems, mental problems and eye problems.

Ø  Constant persistent cough for longer than a month,

Ø  chronic diarrhea {for more than 14 days].

Prevention

Ø  Abstain sexual intercourse,

Ø  Be faithful to your sexual partner,

Ø  Use of condoms in sexual intercourse,

Ø  Refuse any injections, blood transfusions or skin cutting without approval absence of HIV.,

Ø  Avoiding sharing items like razor blades, knives, needles and teeth brushes,

Ø  Chronic bacterial, fungal and protozoa infections.

Treatment

There is no any discovered  drug to treat AIDS. .The treatment given nowdays is only supportive{i.e palliative}using drugs collectively known as anti retroviral{ARVs}

Management of STIs and HIV/AIDS.

Risky situations, behaviours and practices.

The following behaviours and practices put a person in a risk to acquire HIV infection and other STIs;

Ø  Unsafe sexual intercourse,

Ø  Having multiple sexual partners,

Ø  Drug abuse and alcoholism,

Ø  sharing sharp equipments like needles,toothbrush,razor blades etc.

Ø  Rape i.e. sexual intercourse without one’s consent.

Ø  Sexual harassment-Verbal or physical sexual signs and requests for sexual favour

Ø  Anal sex or sodomy,

Ø  Homosexuality-Being attracted sexually by the members of one sex.

Ø  Prostitution-sex workers,

Ø  unlawful sexual intercourse-before age of 18 years in Tanzania.

Necessary skills for avoiding risky behaviour,practices and situations,

The followings will reduce the risk of HIV transmission and transmission of other STIs,

Ø  Abstinence from sexual intercourse.Say NO to sexual intercourse.

Ø  Proper uses of condoms in each intercourse i.e. condomise.

Ø  Having sexual intercourse to one HIV tested free sexual partner i.e. be faithful to your HIV free  partner,

Ø  Avoid drug abuse and alcoholism, i.e. say NO to drugs and alcohol,

Ø  One should be self disciplined,

Ø  No sharing sharp objects like needles,pins,razor blades, etc.

Ø  Counseling services which encourage testing for HIV and other STIs,

Ø  introducing national laws against irresponsible risky behaviors and practices,

Ø  penalty should be set and implemented against irresponsible sexual behaviours.

Care and support for people living with HIV-AIDS{PLWHA},

HIV/AIDS patients tend to feeeldenied.They are usually afraid of death hence they need both moral and material support.Good altitude towards them is the only thing they would appreciate.How you talk and handle such patients makes them forget fear for death which is usually very depressing.In a nutshell,good care and support provided to HIV/AIDS patients will;

Importance of care and support for PLWHA

Ø  Reduce the fear of death,

Ø  Makes the patients feel less or not neglected,

Ø  Makes the patients happier and secure,

Ø  Makes the patients live longer,

Ø  Makes the patients have lower chances for new infections,

Ø  Makes the patients feel more comfortable and mentally healthier.

The necessary care and support to be provided to people living with HIV/AIDS{PLWHA}

Ø  Keep their wounds clean,

Ø  Keep patients bedding and clothes clean,

Ø  Keep the patient clean by preventing feaces,urine,vomits,sweat and blood from spreading,

Ø  Give the patient extra fluids to drink,

Ø  Give the patient balanced diet to eat,

Ø  do not allow the patient to drink alcohol or smoke,

Ø  Allow the patient to exercise,

Ø  Allow the patient to rest at day time,

Ø  Do not share sharp items such as tooth brushes, razorblades and needles with the patient,

Ø  Wear protective gloves and wash your hands after and before attending the patient,

Ø  Show the patient that she/he is loved and avoid all practices that will indicate stigmatism to the patient.

Effects of discrimination and stigma to people living with HIV/AIDS.

Ø  Discrimination and stigma increases fear for death,

Ø  Discrimination and stigma makes the patients feel isolated or neglected,

Ø  Discrimination and stigma makes a patient feel anger and depressed,

Ø  Discrimination and stigma increases chances for new infections,

Ø  Discrimination and stigma reduces life expectancy to HIV/AIDS patients,

Ø  Discrimination and stigma makes a patient even sicker,{mentally sick}

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

The Cell is a basic and functional unit of life.

Characteristics of a cell

• All living things are composed of cells which called carry out the process that make the organism lives entity.
• All cells are basically the same in chemical composition. All life processes take place in the cells.
• Some organisms are made up of many cells and are called multi cellular organisms e.g. man, pine tree, locust.
• All cells are microscopic, its membrane bound it has structures that are site for chemical reaction called organism.
• They have ability to replicate, since they contain the genetic materials. So these are characteristics of cell. 

TYPES OF CELLS

These are two basic types of cells

• Prokaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells are found in organism which they do not have membrane bound organelles, they do not have nucleus.

Prokaryotesare mostly single celled organisms such us bacteria and blue green bacteria.

Eukaryotic cell are cell which they have a membrane bound nucleus. They contain specialized membrane bound organelles

Eukaryoticcells can be found in a single celled organism such as Amoeba or they found in multi cellular organisms.

 ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

Both animal and plants differ in structure and function in order to be able to meet the requirements of each organism.

Plant cell

Animal cell

FUNCTION OF THE PARTS OF ANIMAL CELLS

1. CELL MEMBRANE

• Is also known as plasma membrane or plasma lemma.
• Is thin layer that encloses the whole cell 

Function of cell membrane

• Communicate with other cells.
• It allows selective movement of substances into and out of the cell. It is said to be a selectively permeable membrane or differential membrane
• It encloses the contents of the cell

2. CYTOPLASM

This is jell like substance made up of water and dissolved chemical substances. The cytoplasm is the site for many chemical reactions in the cell. Cell organelles such as the vacuoles, nucleus and mitochondria are suspended in the cytoplasm. The movement of cytoplasm is known as cytoplasmic stream 

3. NUCLEUS

This is a round or oval organelle suspended in the cytoplasm. The nucleus is made up of nucleolus and fluid called nucleoplasma.It’s surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear membrane. 

Functions of nucleus

• To determine the chemical processed that take place in the cell.
• To control the functions of all parts of the cell
• To determine the cell’s size, shape and function
• To determine the hereditary characteristic of a cell

1.      VACUOLES

Cell vacuoles are fluid filled spaces bound by a membrane. Animal cells have small and temporary vacuoles mainly used to secret and excrete wastes from the cell. 

2.      MITOCHONDRION

Is a sausage – shaped (oval shaped) organelle.A mitochondrion is bound by two membranes namely: -

• Outer membrane
• Inner membrane

The inner membrane is greatly folded into cristae to increase the surface area for cellular respiration.

The fluid in which cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondrion is called matrix. The function of mitochondrion is the site for respiration, reactions which yield energy for the cell.

STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRION

3.      CENTRIOLES

Centrioles are rod shaped cylindrical structures located just outside the nuclear membrane.

During cell division they move to opposite sides of the nucleus to form the ends of the spindle.

Function of centrioles

They take part in cell division and also in the formation of alia and flagelli in cells where these structured are present.

4. LYSOSOMES

Lysosomes are membrane bound sacs within the cytoplasm of animal cells

Function of Lysosomes

They contain enzymes responsible for the digestion of materials in food vacuole. They destroy worn out organelles within the cell.

They may sometime destroy the entire cell.

Function of parts of plant cells

1. CELL WALL

• This is a strong covering made of cellulose.
• The cell wall is fully permeable. It allows the passage of water and minerals, gases (freely permeable).
• Protects and gives the cell a definite shape            

2.CHLOROPLAST

• They are sites of photosynthesis
• It Contain green pigment called chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy needed for photosynthesis

3. VACUOLE

Vacuoles maintain a balance between water molecules and solute molecules in the cell; contain color pigments, which give color to flower.

The fluid inside vacuole is known as cell sap

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL