OEP 101: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE FIVE LEARNING THEORIES AND TEACHING
OEP
101: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
LECTURE
FIVE
LEARNING
THEORIES AND TEACHING
What
is a theory?
Dorin, Demmin and Gabel
(1990) say that; theories provide general observations on a phenomenon made
over time but the information gained so far has not yet being established
beyond doubt.
A
theory is a fact based framework for describing a phenomenon. In psychology,
theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions
and behaviors.
A psychological theory
has two key components:
·
it must describe a behavior
·
it must make predictions about future
behavior
For a theory to be
recognized, lies a collective assumptions of the existence of the phenomenon,
and that it has the best explanation of phenomenon and the respective people
are working on it to eventually prove that it is true.
Education
psychology include some theories that
dominate and impact the field and related fields for a certain period of time
and then they lose their dominance to other theories seen as more “plausible” (reasonable
or believable).
1.
Behavioral Approaches
Is a theory of learning
based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning which
occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our
responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions.
Among the behaviorists includes Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Tolman and B.F. Skinner. The main focus of
behaviorism is that behavior is learnt through conditioning. behaviorists
believe that learning is expressed by change in overt behavior (observable
behavior), the environment changes behavior and that the formation of a bond of things or events
depends on the time interval between them.
Behaviorism defines
learning as permanent changes of behavior as a result of experience. There must
be a change in observable behavior to definitely prove that learning has taken
place. Lack of change in behavior implies that learning has not occurred.
To behaviorists
learning is associated by classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning.
However,
it is important to have a glance at Edward
Thorndike theory of response association expressed as S R = Stimulus Response
·
The theory states that, when an organism
detects a certain stimulus it gives a
specific response based on previous encounters.
This approach of
learning had three laws:
a)
Law
of exercise: states that, connection between
stimulus and response is strengthened depending on how frequent they are used
together.
b)
Law
of effect: states that strengthening or weakening of the
connection between stimulus and response are the results of the consequences of
the response.
c)
Law
of readiness: states that the basis of individual’s
response depends on the extent of his/her preparedness to act.
Classical
Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
is also known as Pavlovian Conditioning. Refers
to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (eg. food) is
paired with a previously neutral stimulus (eg. a bell).
Pavlov
Terminologies
·
Unconditioned
stimulus (US): a stimulus in the environment that
biologically makes an organism to give a specific response, eg. food makes
organisms salivate.
·
Conditioned
stimulus (CS): this is a neutral stimulus that
naturally does not produce response but after being paired several times with
the US produces a response eg. A bell before connected to food.
·
Unconditional
Response (UCR): this is an unlearned response produced
by UCS. The dog naturally salivate when food powder was placed on the tongue,
we normally salivate when we taste something delicious. UCR can be counted as
reflex action.
·
Conditional
Response (CR): this is a response that is elicited by
CS alone. Before pairing CS and UCS there was no response, but after pairing an
organism makes a response on CS in the absence of UCS.
Identify the UCS,UCR, CS, and CR in a
given paragraph bellow:
Example:
Alexander is four
years old. One night his parents decided to light a fire in the family room
fireplace. A burning ember jumped out of the fireplace and landed on
Alexander’s leg, creating a nasty burn. He cried because the burn hurt. A
week later, when Alexander’s parents started to light another fire in the
fireplace, Alexander began to cry.
|
From
the paragraph above
UCS
= the nasty burn
UCR
= crying
CS
= the fire in the fireplace
CR
= crying
Pavlov Observations on Classical
Conditioning
·
Extiction:
if
one stops pairing the CS and UCS, the CR will cease in response to CS. The dogs
stopped to salivate if the bell was presented alone several times in absence of
food.
·
Stimulus
generalization: CR can occur in presence of stimuli
that are similar to the UCS. The dogs salivated when they had sounds similar to
the bell.
·
Stimulus
discrimination: an organism can learn to discriminate
between the Cs and other stimuli similar to the Cs ie give CR only to one
specific CS. This occurs after recognizing that only one specific neutral
stimulus is accompanied with reward. The dogs learned to respond only to the
bell and not to other similar sounds.
·
Spontaneous
recovery (learning): the extinguished Cr can reappear latter
if Cs is again paired with the UCS. The time taken to establish the connection
during spontaneous recovery is much shorter than the initial one to establish
the conditioning. Also after spontaneous recovery it takes a shorter time to
extinguish CR if the CS is presented alone in absence of UCS.
·
Higher
–
order Conditioning: once an organism
has learned to associate CS and UCS, another neutral stimulus can be presented
at the same with the CS. Eventually the new stimulus becomes CS that can elicit
CR in absence of the original CS.
The
way teachers react to students’ answers can induce fear that can negatively
affect learning process and vice versa. If the teacher is too harsh to
students’ answers, they may be conditioned to fear the teacher and lose
interest to his/her subject. Alsoconditioning can account for test anxiety
(fear of tests and examinations) among students.
Just
as students learn to fear neutral things they can also learn not to fear the
same things through extinction process. Remember extinction is stopping giving
a response to CS. One can learn not to fear teachers or other objects in
school.
Operant Conditioning (Instrumental
Conditioning)
The
approach of operant conditioning was developed by B.F.Skinner (1904-1990). He postulated that psychology should deal
with observable behaviors that can be measured and ignored the process taking
place in the mind ie. mentalprocess.
In
Pavlov’s experiment the dog had to wait for someone to introduce UCS for it to
give a response.
In
operant conditioning (sometimes called Instrumental Conditioning) the organism
‘opereates’ on the environment based on the consequences of its actions ie
deliberately initiating and operating in a process of responses. The individual
and the consequences are instrumental in his/her behavior.
Skinner
used a special box (called Skinner Box)
to study the behavior of some animals (mostly rats) to demonstrate his theory.
Based
in these experiments Skinner established the following basic aspects of operant
conditioning.
The
sequence of operant conditioning can be illustrated in the following chart.
Actions that lead to positive consequences are
repeated and those that bring negative consequences are avoided. Repeating or
avoiding are both responses. Positive
Reinforcement is a pleasant or
rewarding consequence that follows a response and as a result makes it likely
for response to be repeated in future when under the same circumstances.
A
student will always study more for a course she/he does well. Negative
reinforcement is a consequence that makes a person escape or avoid painful
situation. These responses are likely to be repeated since they remove
unpleasant conditions. A person will repeat taking pills that relief (avoid)
headache when s/he gets a headache in the future.
Responses
that do not get reinforcement eventually become extinct. Extinction means an
organism stopping giving a response in presense of stimulus after learning that
it will not be reinforced. A student will stop raising a hand to a teacher whom
s//he knows will not select him/her to answer the questions.
In
some occasions it takes time and trial and error to make an association between
stimulus, response and reinforcement ie to establish new behavior through a
process known as behaviorism shaping.
Behavioral shaping invoves giving reinforcement to responses that lead to the
final required response and ignoring the other responses, until the individual
learns the association between the stimulus and the desired response.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement
Reinforcers
are objects, events or actions that increase the individual’s possibility of
repeating a specific behavior in the future, The power of a reinforce depends
on the person or organism being reinforced eg. money is an effective reinforce
to humans but worth nothing to a dog and even a small child.
Aspirin
is a reinforce to a person with headache but not to a person starving. As a
teacher you must identify things or objects that are effective as reinforcers
to students and sometimes to a specific student.
Types of Reinforcers
There
are two types of reinforcers, namely Primary
reinforcement and Secondary
reinforcement.
Primary reinforcement:
are natural things that meet our basic needs such as food, water and shelter.
Other things that are paired with primary reinforcers and eventually get their
own reinforcing powers ar known as secondary
reinforcers. Money is a good example of secondary reinforce. Many of the
reinforcers in schools are secondary reinforcers. When a secondary reinforce
acquires the properties of a primary reinforcer it is known as a generalized reinforce. When we just work
to get money just for the sake of becoming rich then money is a generalized
reinforcer.
Schedules of Reinforcement
From
the experiences not all of our responses are given reinforcement immediately.
Some responses are reinforced immediately while others are not reinforced
immediately ie the reinforcement is provided later. In most cases when we pay
cash to the shopkeeper we get the object
we want.
Schedules
of reinforcement refers to a system that indicates which response get
reinforcement and which will not get reinforcement.
In
continuous reinforcement every
response is followed by reinforcement. Every time a student gives a correct
answer in the classroom the teacher nods in recognition. In the long run this
schedule is not very effective since some people and organisms stop responding
to enjoy the reinforcements that have been accumulated.
Continuous
reinforcement is very effective in establishing new behavioral response. Once
the intended behavioral responses has been established we can move on to partial reinforcement schedules ie not
all responses get reinforcement, but rather just some of them. Partial
reinforcement schedules have been known to be more effective in maintaining an
established response than the continuous reinforcement. Partial reinforcement
schedules can be in various patterns.
Patterns of partial reinforcement:
There
are two types of partial reinforcement patterns namely as: Interval schedules and ratio
schedules
In
the Interval schedules; presentation of reinforcement is based on time factor.
In fixed interval schedules a response is reinforced after a fixed amount of
time has elapsed since the last reinforcement.
The
time period between reinforcement is constantly the same. An employer can
decide to give reinforcement to his worker after five days of work ie paying
the worker at the end of every fifth day. Giving a test on every last Monday of
each month is another example.
In
variable Interval schedules the amount of time that elapses between the
reinforcement varies. The individual (organism) knows that s/he will be given
reinforcement but does not know when. The employer may pay his worker after
five days this time, next payment after seven days and the following payment
after four days. A teacher may decide to give a quiz after five days, then
after six days and the next one after three days. Note that an individual has
to give responses to get reinforcement within the respective period of time.
The main limitation of fixed interval is that some people stay idle and only
give responses just before the time reinforcement is expected.
In
the ratio schedule presentation of
reinforcement is based on a number of correct responses one has to make to get
reinforcement. In fixed ratio schedules one is reinforced after making a fixed
number of correct responses since the last reinforcement.
An
employer can decide to give reinforcement after his worker has produced a
specific number of items eg paying the worker after baking 100 loaves of bread.
In classroom a teacher can only marks student’s exercise after he has completed
five questions.
A
variable ratio schedule implies one gets reinforcement after a set of average
number of correct responses. These set vary in the number of correct responses.
The first set might be after five responses, the second set after four
responses and the following after six responses. A worker may get reinforcement
after baking 100 loaves then after baking 200 loaves and then after just baking
75 loaves.
The
effects of this type of schedule of reinforcement used differ. Fixed ratio is
more effective when establishing a new behavior. The best schedule for
maintaining behavior is variable ratio. The individual does not stop giving
responses since s/he is always expecting to get reinforcement after the next
response.
PREMARK’S PRINCIPLE
This
principle was described by David Premark. Actions that are more desirable to
the individual can be used as reinforcers for less desirable ones. Desirable actions
done by individual more often and much longer in terms of time relative to the
less desirable ones ie desirable actions have high frequency activity. In life
every person has actions that s/he likes more and other actions that s/he likes
less. Many children (and adults too) like to watch television and dislike
homework.
Premark’s
principle says that watching television can be used as a reinforcement for
doing homework or washing pots. A child is required to complete homework or
washing pots before being allowed out to play.
As
a teacher it is advisable to identify desirable actions of your students and
then make a reinforcement hierarchy ie listing actions of student with the most
desirable action at the top and ending the least desirable action at the
bottom. To obtain the list you can tell students to write what they like or you
can observe them during their spare time.
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING
Several
psychologists identify cognitive processes as critical component in
understanding human behavior. All cognitive theories look beyond overt behavior
and rather focus on brain and mental processes in explaining learning. Other
common features in these theories include making inferences on observable
mental processes, believing that individuals are actively involved in learning
process and learning involves relating new information to previously learned
information.
Edward
Tolman (Tolman & Honzik, 1930) proposed Latent learning in which an organism learns about its environment
without reinforcement or a change in behavior. We develop cognitive map of our
environment and only demonstrate this knowledge when reinforcement is
available.
When
in a new surroundings you observe the area and learn about the layout of
objects without expecting any reinforcement. Later on the information acquired
can be used to give a response that leads to reinforcement.
Gestalts psychologists
Psychologists
of this perspective were against behaviorism by emphasizing that mental
processes are important in explaining learning. Among the basic ideas of this
theory is that we perceive things in whole and not in segment and
the perception formed can be different from the reality.
Cognitive Constructivism
Constructivists
hold that a learner is actively constructing and inventing his/her own
knowledge from past experiences rather than just receive and absorb what s/he
gets from others including teachers. A learner modifies his/her understanding
in relation to the new information leading to internalization of concepts,
rules and principles that are later applied in future encounters.
Constructivists
main ideas are (Elliot et al, 2000):
·
We only know subjective reality and not
the object reality since knowledge we have is based on our subjective
experiences
·
Knowledge is subjective because each one
has his/her own unique experiences
·
The knowledge of two people are said to
be “taken as shared” to the extent that their constructions seem to function in
the same way in given situation
·
Knowledge is constructed through the
process of adapting to events and ideas one experiences
·
The construction of knowledge is
significantly influenced by symbols and materials one uses or has ready access
to.
·
Readiness to learn means that an individual
is ready to learn when his/her existing cognitive constructions are capable of
incorporating new information.
Piaget’s theory of Learning
This
theory believes that learning is determined by mental structures and how the
new information is incorporated into the existing knowledge.
Implications
of cognitive theories on education are:
·
Cognitive processes influence learning
·
Learning difficulties often indicate
ineffective cognitive processes, especially for children with learning
disabilities
·
As children grow they become capable of
increasingly more sophisticated thought
·
People organize things they learn
·
New information is most easily acquired
when people can associate it with things they have already learned
·
People control their own learning