Concepts and Perspectives in Educational Management and Administration

 
Module 1: Concepts and Perspectives in Educational Management and Administration

•       Management and Administration

Ø  The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably though they differ very slightly.

Ø  Mpokosa and Ndaruhutse (2008) view management as a term generally understood as comprising different aspects of planning, organising, resourcing, leading, coordinating, directing and controlling an organisation or an area with the objective of accomplishing a goal.

Ø  Managers need to make sure that activities are coordinated and teachers and students feel safe (Rallis & Highsmith, 1986).

•       Management includes the processes, tools, structures and procedures in the way things are made done.

•       Managers always make sure things are done right.

•       It is different from leaders who always make sure right things are done.

•       Management is an art and science, as it involves practice and dealing with people and still it requires knowledge of fundamentals of management.

•       However, managers perform the administrative tasks and leadership tasks. All the tasks that are done so that one finds time to lead such as writing and reading reports, communicating with customers (i.e.  Academic staff, support staff and students in the education industry) may be referred to as ‘administration’.

•       Administration is traditionally interpreted as part of management process.

•       Experts in administration such as Rebore view administration as an indispensable process (something you cannot do without) of all institutions in an organized society.

•       Thus, no organized society that will survive without administration.

•       The need for administration has been evident whenever there is a task to be performed by two or more people.

•       There is a need to know who is going to pull and who is going to push. This implies that administration is relational i.e. it needs more than one person.

•       Other than a task and people, in administration, there should also be a goal or objectives to be accomplished.

•      
Educational/School Administrator

•       The school administrator develops and establishes;

v  Administrative processes: All activities in an organization such as planning, decision making and communicating.

v  Procedures: Rules, regulations and principles.

v  Techniques: These would harness (tie together) human and material energies in order to accomplish educational objectives in an organization.

Ø  Administration therefore is an executive activity different from policy making.

Ø  Administrators are concerned with the implementation of the policy. Policy makers just make the policy to be implemented by the administrators.

•       Functions of Administration

•       Functions of Administration Cont .......

v  Personnel Administration/Human Resource Administration includes.

• Manpower planning
• Recruitment of personnel
• Selection of personnel
• Placement and induction of personnel (preparation of people to take responsibilities)
• Staff development (workers must developed in terms of their educational level)
• Personnel appraisal (to assess or evaluate the workers). Appraisal is a sensitive part and therefore an administrator must be fair and professional.
• Compensation of personnel
• Collective bargaining or negotiation (members of the staff are collected and speak together whatever about an organization).

v  Instructional Programme Administration

   Instructional programme of administration is regarded as a technical core of all schools. It includes functions such as:

• Teaching and learning function
• Time tabling
• Curriculum delivery
• Evaluation
• Students’ promotion to mention but a few.

   In administration, Management By Walking Around (MBWA) is encouraged in order to ensure that the programmes are running smoothly.

v  Support Services Administration

•       This includes administration of non-core function such as:

• Catering/Food services
• Transportation function
• Stores and material management
• Financial management. For instance, dealing with accountants, bursars and infirmary
• Cleaning

  The most visible and critical functions of administration are Personnel Administration, Instructional Programme Administration and Support Services Administration. However, there are others like the relationship between the administrators and employees.

Note that:

•       We administer rules, regulations and principles;

•        We manage systems, resources and structures; and/but

•        We lead people.

•       Theorizing Educational Administration

•       It is important for us to theorize educational administration, management and leadership of educational institutions. WHY?

•       Institutions and tasks are becoming more complex and integrated processes.

•       Hoy and Miskel assert that “the systematic study of educational administration is as new as the modern school”.

•       They argue that schools were originally not as complex as this time.

•       Thus, previously when the schools were not complex institutions, there was no need of specialized administrators.

•       Therefore, research on administration and development of theories of organization and administration are relatively recent phenomena.

•       Educational managers and leaders need theories and foundations of administration as they enhance their capacity of coordinating and communicating the vision of an organization. Eg. Loose coupling theory.

•       Using such theories every one of us can go to the schools and become a model manager (good and systematic head of school).

•       Educational management and administration have to play a key role of resolving some of the problems which arise in this climate of limited resources, unlimited demands and uncertainties on educational institutions which have the responsibility of delivering quality education.

•       Educational managers need to be innovative as well as quick minded in finding reasonable, logical, systematic and effective solutions.

•       Theories in educational administration work to enhance the knowledge and skills of getting effective solutions.

•        Although, theories in educational administration play a very pivotal role, decision making process plays its part to effective educational management and administration.

•       Majority of educational leaders are appointed by common sense which may be right or wrong.

•       Yet, Hoy and Miskel have observed that the increasing social, political and technological complexity of schools restrict the value of judgement basing on common sense (rule of the thumb) to guide the behaviour of educational administrators.

•       Kerlinger emphasizes that common sense may instead be a poor guide for decision making and evaluating knowledge.

•       In a rapidly changing society the narrowness of individual experiences and subjectivity as opposed to objectivity of common sense limits its usefulness as foundation for making decisions in modern schools.

•       Common sense is subjective i.e. it always rely on internal evaluation. Hence, it is individual based.

•       For instance, this teacher is always well dressed so she deserves to be a headmistress. Kerlinger says this is a narrowness way of making decisions.

•       Then what is a theory?

•       Educational administration is characterized by using a theory to explain and predict a phenomenon in an organization.

•       A theory provides explanations of a given phenomenon and guide research i.e. research for further knowledge and understanding.

•       A theory is an abstract thus it can be right or wrong and so it is open to criticism.

•       Kerlinger defines a theory as “a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena”.

•       Theories are statements, concepts, assumptions and generalizations that systematically explain and predict some phenomenon.

•       The definitions suggest three things namely;

v  A theory is logically comprised of concepts, assumptions and generalizations.

v  The functions of a theory are to describe, explain and predict behavioural regularities of a given phenomenon. For instance, the fact that the sun rises from the East and sets in the West.

v  A theory is heuristic i.e. it stimulates the need for further development of the knowledge and understanding of a given phenomenon. This not the end in itself but rather a guide towards a given phenomenon.

•      
Functions of theories

•       Experiences have shown that many school administrators are uncomfortable with theories.

•       However, a closer examination shows that almost in every decision that school managers make is to some extent based on a theory.

•       For instance, a school manager may decide to include others in decision making especially when the issue is relevant to them and he/she believes that they have an expertise power to make, instead of making the decision alone.

•       Such action is referred to as participatory/shared/collaborative/group decision making.

•       In education, it is believed that when teachers and parents are involved in decision making, they become more committed in implementing it.

•       While implementing and supporting the decision, a sense of ownership in the school will result.

•       Without knowing it, the school manager made the decision to involve others in the decision making process on the basis of a theory.

•      
Theories then:

•       Guide empirical studies. They provide conceptual foundations for researches that are to check theoretical explanations against observable reality.

•       Contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field. They provide integrative common frameworks for the development of further knowledge and understanding on a given phenomenon (heuristic function).

•       Guide actions by providing the base for decision making in day to day practical questions. Eg, rationality or bounded rationality approach of decision making.

•       Perform the predictive function: Theories permit social scientists to predict the existence of unobserved instances conforming to it. Confer Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of motivational needs model/theory.

•      
The Development of Administrative thought

•       The development of administrative thought is placed in four models. These are:

v  The Classical Management school of thought (classical organizational theory).

v  The human relations approach.

v  The behavioural science approach.

v  The post-behavioural science era.

  The discussion will focus on few models namely the Classical Management school of thought (classical organizational theory) and the human relations approach.

•      
The Classical Management school of thought (Classical organizational theory)

•       It emerged early in the 20^th century.

•       It includes two different management perspectives namely:

ü  scientific management and

ü  administrative management.

•       Scientific management

•       Before the 20^th century, there was almost no systematic study of management.

•       The management practice was based on common sense and experience.

•       Fredrick W. Taylor, an engineer and greatest proponent of this theory believed that through a careful scientific analysis the efficiency of work could be improved.

•       The proponents of this perspective believed that human beings can be programmed to be efficient machines.

•       That is why this theory is called machine theory/traditional approach of organization.

•       Fredrick W. Taylor and his associates believed that people (workers in an organization) are motivated by economics but (and) limited by physiology (the bodies are the limiting factors).

•       They argue that workers also need constant direction, i.e. if left by their own they may not work. Why?

•       This is because; the proponents of this theory have the assumption that human beings are lazy (they dislike work).

•        They also believe that workers are motivated by economic gains.

•       They further assume that people are greedy and due to that they will always work for extra economic incentives.

•       They are self-centred people.

•       This is called THEORY X assumption about WORKERS.

•        McGregor said, there are two theories which explain people’s attitude towards work.

•       These are: Theory X and Theory Y.

•      
Propositions and assumptions of theory X

•       People dislike work and they avoid it when they can.

•       People require close direction and supervision when they are at work.

•       Many people prefer to be directed and tend to avoid responsibilities.

•       Most people must be coerced (forced) and threatened with punishment before they work. People are interested only in security. According to Maslow, theory X workers will always struggle for physiological needs; and safety (security) needs.

•      
Propositions and assumptions of theory Y

•       Work is a natural activity like play or rest.

•       People are capable of self direction and self control if they are committed to objectives.

•       Typically, employees can learn to accept and seek responsibilities.

•       People generally become committed to the organisational objectives if they are rewarded to do so. According to Maslow, Theory Y workers will struggle for all levels of hierarchy.

•       Fredrick Taylor in management theory categorized individuals as “HOMO ECONOMICUS” which literally means “economic man” or “economic person”.

•       He/She is motivated by self interest and completely informed about all variables and alternatives available to him or her when making a decision.

•       It means a “HOMO ECONOMICUS” is a rational being and whatever decisions he/she makes

•       “HOMO ECONOMICUS” is also aware of the variables and alternatives before he/she makes decisions.

•       There are a number of variables or alternatives that may limit one to be informed of all variables or alternatives such as:

v  Limited information, Limited resources and time, Unlimited demands and Uncertainties.

•       Herbert Simon argues that in as much as individuals seek to pursue self interests, they are not always aware of all the possible alternatives but they are aware of only the few of all the possible alternatives.

•       Hence, they seek and are willing to set for an adequate solution by (SATISFICING) rather than the optimal one (OPTIMIZING). Rather than optimizing (the most optimal solution) individuals will satisfice i.e. individuals will go for a solution which is ‘good enough’.

•       To Herbert Simon, the person who “SATISFICE” is called an “administrative person”.

•       An administrative person is rational but his rationality is bounded or limited.

•       Therefore, the rationality we have is limited due to:

v  Limited information, Limited resources and time, Unlimited demands and Uncertainties.

•       Herbert Simon differentiated between individuals’ decision to join and continue to participate in an organization and the decision an individual is asked to make as a participant in an organization.

•       So, as one joins the organization, there are some processes which one must do before he/she makes the decisions but also as one enters the organization there are some decisions one will be supposed to make while in an organization.

•       The decisions made in the two incidences will have different approaches.  Human beings will always “maximize pleasure” and “minimize pain” that is why they are “HOMO ECONOMICUS” and self-centred.

•       Scientific management theorists believe that it was possible to scientifically analyze tasks performed by individuals.

•       The aim is to discover those procedures that will produce the maximum output with the minimum input of energies and resources (efficiency).

•       Fredrick W. Taylor’s scientific management theory worked from the individual worker (shop floor) to upward (top executive).

•       Each person in an organization whether top executive (high) or shop floor (low) has to have a clearly defined task.

•       According to Taylor, high pay need to be tied to successful completion of the task assigned to the work. i.e. time spent on the job and the task/work done had to determine the wage.

•      
Criticism to Taylor’s views of management

•       Taylor’s work has been criticized for having a narrow physiological focus which totally ignores the psychological and sociological variables of the workers.

•       The model was resisted by managers because of the division of labour. i.e. workers and managers having equal division of work and each being aware of who does what in a day.

•       It was seen as an unwarranted (unnecessary) interference in managerial prerogatives (privileges/rights).

•       Workers also rejected the incentive systems requiring them to perform continuously at peak levels of efficiency. (Confer high pay being tied to successful completion of the task assigned in a day.

•       Administrative management

•       It developed concurrently with scientific management.

•       The principal contributors of administrative management are Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick and Max Weber.

•       According to Fayol, administrative behaviour consists of five functions namely planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.

•       Besides those, Fayol identified 14 principles that should guide the management of organizations and found to be useful during his experience as a manager.

The 14 principles are;

•       Division of work

•       Authority

•       Discipline

•       Unity of command

•       Unity of direction

•       Subordination of individual interest

•       Remuneration

•       Centralization

•       Scalar chain (chain of command)

•       Order

•       Equity

•       Stability of personnel

•       Initiative

•       Esprit de corps–Unity is strength (Read more to familiarize yourselves to these concepts).

•       As stated earlier, while scientific management theory worked from the individual worker (shop floor) to upward (top executive) or bottom-up, i.e. what do workers do every day?, the administrative management theory worked from the managing director to downward (top-down, i.e. what do managers do?).

•       The administrative theorists also introduced to us several other notions including:

v  Division of labour: It means breaking down of tasks into smaller components. Labour is becoming more specialized.

v  Span of control: The term refers to the number of workers under the supervision of one manager. The notion leads to the subdivision of workers in groups from top to bottom. For instance,

 

Top Executive

•                                                                           

•             Director  1                 Director  2                       

•        

•       Manager 1 Manager 2 Manager 3 Manager 4

•               

•       Section   Section

   head 1   head 2

•       Sometimes it was believed that the fewer the people the manager has under his/her supervision is the more the effectiveness.

•       However, modern thoughts argue that it is possible to have many people because of other factors like technology etc, but logically few people are easy to supervise.

•       Span of control also indicates the flow of power and the authority uniformly from the top to the bottom. Span of control is believed to be effective in building administrative organizations.

•       2. Human Relations School of thought

•       This arouse out of the reaction to the classical school of thought to the understanding of an organization.

•       The most important proponents of the human relations school of thought are Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo.

•       Mary Parker Follett was for the believe that the fundamental problem in ‘all’ organizations was in developing and maintaining dynamic and harmonious relationships.

•       Mary Parker Follett was for the believe that the fundamental problem in ‘all’ organizations was in developing and maintaining dynamic and harmonious relationships.

•       Every relationship must be developed by words and actions.

•       Mary Parker observed that in fact conflict in an organization is not necessarily a wasteful outbreak of incompatibilities.

•       This means that conflict is not necessarily bad but a normal process by which socially valuable differences register themselves for the enrichment of all concerned.

•       Thus, conflict should not be immediately resolved because it may be destructive but sometimes constructive.

•       Conflict may give one an opportunity to develop the organization. So, conflicts in an organization are not only inevitable but also necessary.

•       The approach is basically credited to Elton Mayo and his associates who conducted Hawthorne Experiments.

•       The Hawthorne experiments were designed to find out the effects of physical conditions such as illumination (light) or ventilation on how it affects productivity.

•       The study found that the variation of physical condition does not affect workers productivity, i.e. there was increase of productivity regardless of decrease or increase of ventilation.

•       Thus, there were some other factors that could affect productivity.

•        This brings us to a concept of serendipity/serendipitous.

•       The term refers to the occurrence and development of events by chance in a happy or beneficial way.

•        It simply means the accident of finding something good or useful while not specifically for it.

•       It is therefore a process where one goes out to look for one thing but discovers another thing altogether.

•       Elton Mayo’s experiment was to see the effects of ventilation on productivity but what they got/experienced after experiment went further.

•       Human relation movements came up with propositions.

•       The propositions are:

•       The economic incentive is not the only significant motivator.

v  In fact, they argued that non-economic social sanctions limit the effectiveness of economic incentives.

v  Employees are motivated by social and psychological needs and by economic incentives.

•       Production levels are limited more by the social norms of the informal organizations than the physiological capabilities.

v  This means that one may be ready to finish a piece of work at appropriate time but it should be noted that there are sanctions.

v  Others pull him or her not to finish the work.

•       Human Relations School of thought cont ---

•       Workers respond to management as members of an informal group not as individuals, i.e. workers will always form groups wherever they are.

v  While classical school of thought emphasized on formal group organization, human relations encouraged informal groups as a reaction to that.

•       Specialization does not necessarily create the most efficient organization of the work group.

•       Workers use informal organization to protect themselves against arbitrary management decisions.

v  If there are decisions made in the management side without negotiations with the workers, workers will use the informal groups to strike (protect themselves).

•       Workers use informal organization to protect themselves against arbitrary management decisions.

v  If there are decisions made in the management side without negotiations with the workers, workers will use the informal groups to strike (protect themselves).

•       A narrow span of control is not a prerequisite to effective supervision.

v  The administrative theory sees that the smaller the number of workers under the higher office, the higher the productivity as but human relations see ‘span of control’ as not a necessary condition for effective supervision.

•       Informal leaders are often as important as formal leaders;

v  Those people who are not elected but can influence and mobilize others are considered as important as formal supervisors.

•       Human relations have emphasized on informal organizations.

•       To them, work can be enjoyable as a play or rest if designed nicely, a worker needs no supervision but he/she can supervise by him/herself, workers are intrinsically motivated if they are recognized (theory Y). They reversed the theory X assumptions on workers.

•       Human Relations School of thought cont ---

•       Human relations replace the emphasis from the organization structure to the employees’ motivation and satisfaction.

•       One of the theory of motivations is Maslow Hierarchy of Needs.

•       The theory assumes that only when the lower order needs are satisfied we become concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development.

•       Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs (Chapman, 2001-4).

•       An individual needs some levels of satisfaction in order to be motivated.

•       Such levels according to Maslow are:

•       Self actualization: (Achievement of potential maximum self-development, creativity and self expression)

•        

•       Self esteem: (Self-respect, competence, confidence, recognition, dignity and appreciation)

•        

•       Self affiliation: (Satisfactory associations with others, belongingness and love/affection, giving and receiving friendship)

•        

•       Safety/Security needs: (Protection against danger and threat; freedom from fear, anxiety, and chaos; need for structure, order, law limits and stability)

•        

•       Physiological (Basic needs): Hunger, thirst, sex, taste, clothing and sleep.